Regional Air Suport

Weight & Balance

 Theory of Flight
There are four factors that are essential for
‘flight,’ these are:

• Weight
• Lift
• Thrust
• Drag
 Lift
 Propulsion alone is not enough, otherwise a vehicle would fly. The
reason an aircraft can fly is because the wings and fuselage create
‘lift’. When an aircraft is propelled it causes air to flow across the
upper and lower surfaces of the wing.

Aerofoil shape
 Weight
 Every object on earth has a certain weight.
 When thrown into the air gravity will ensure that it falls back to
earth.
 The downward force due to the weight (Gravity) of the aircraft
and its Load is directly opposed to ‘Lift’.

Lift

Weight
 Thrust
 To enable an aircraft to become
airborne ‘lift’ has to be generated by the
wing. This can only be achieved if air
flows over the wings, so a forward
motion is required.
 To achieve the forward motion of the
aircraft, THRUST is needed. This is
provided by the engine.
 Lift 2

The difference in pressure creates the ‘lift’.

The pressure difference is a result of the shape of the wing. Air
particles moving along the top surface have to travel further than the
air particles at the bottom surface of the wing.
In order for the particles to meet at the rear of the wing at the same
time, the upper particles have to travel much faster. This causes a
low air pressure on the upper surface of the wing and high pressure
resulting on the lower side. This forces the wing upwards
 Drag
 All objects will experience resistance if placed in a stream of air.
Therefore an aircraft in flight will experience resistance from the
oncoming air (called drag in aviation).
 The bigger the aircraft the more drag is experienced thus more thrust
is required to reach the desired speed.
 Weight & Balance
The following presentation is divided into two parts :

Weight
 Components of Weight
 Weight terminology
 Weight limitations

Balance
 Trim Measurements and Envelope
 Trim Calculations
 Optimum Trim
 Documentation
 Weight

At the end of this section you will be able to state:

 Weight components an aircraft consists of.

 How these Weight components relate to each other.
 What structural limits an aircraft is subject to.
 What the concept ‘Maximum Weight’ stands for.
 Introduction
The total weight of an aircraft at take-off is formed by the
weight of the aircraft itself, the weight of the load, and the
weight of fuel.
These weights in turn can be subdivided into smaller weight
components.
This subdivision is necessary, because the weight of the
aircraft differs at the different flight stages. For example an
aircraft which has just departed weighs considerably more
than during landing.This difference is caused by the large
amount of fuel used during flight.
 All weight components have a name, and by adding
or subtracting certain weight components from each
other, new weight components will appear.

For you it is the utmost importance to know

these concepts and to be able to apply them
when completing a loadsheet.
The weight of the aircraft is measured in :
 Kilogram- ‘Kilo’-Kg
 One Metric Tonne = 1000 Kg
 Basic Operating Weight

 Airframe
 Engines
 Avionics / Instrumentation
 2 Seats
 Dry Operating Weight or
Aircraft Prepared for
Service Weight
Aircraft Basic Operating Weight
+ +
Role equipment -
Cabin Crew
Crew hand baggage
Aircraft library
Potable water

==
Dry Operating Weight (DOW)
 Dry Operating Weight (D.O.W.)

Ops Manual – Aircraft Weight Data gives Dry Operating Weights for
different aircraft Configurations.
 Traffic load
Traffic Load

 The Traffic Load is the total amount of load in ‘Weight’ expected for
the flight.
 Normally Standard Weights for passengers and baggage are used. I.e.
Males 88kg Females 70kg Children 35kg
Babies Nil
Domestic baggage 11kg International baggage 13kg
 Zero Fuel Weight
(ZFW)

 Zero Fuel Weight stands for the total ‘dry’ weight the aircraft engines
have to lift. As the weight of the fuel is not included in this weight, the
Zero Fuel Weight remains constant during the entire flight. Making it a
convenient reference point for calculations.
 Fuel Breakdown
The only things we have not yet taken into account is the fuel and the
weights that relate to it.
It is the task of the aircraft captain to calculate by means of Computer
Flight Plans, the amount of fuel needed to complete the flight. The
result of this calculation is called the ‘Ramp Fuel’.
‘Ramp Fuel’ can be subdivided into:

 ‘Trip Fuel’ or ‘Burn-Off’ This is the amount of fuel the aircraft uses
from Origin to Destination.

 ‘Reserve Fuel’ This is additional fuel loaded for diversions, Holding

and contingencies usually in the tanks on arrival at destination.

 ‘Taxi Fuel’ Allowance for fuel consumed during start-up and taxi to
the start of the take-off run.
Fuel Breakdown
 Influence of fuel in wing tanks

 If the wings are filled with fuel, the weight of the fuel will
compensate the lift-forces. If the aircraft would completely
run out of fuel during flight (Zero fuel) this compensation is
lost and the force which is brought to bear upon the
connection between the wing and fuselage (wing root) could
become high.
 Operating Weight

 After the fuel has been taken in, the necessary components for safe flight are
available. From a commercial point of view, it would be uneconomical to fly
without traffic load.
 This weight is an important weight component, because in the end it forms the
basis for calculating the ‘maximum allowable traffic load’.
 The Operating Weight includes the Take-Off Fuel (Ramp Fuel minus Taxi Fuel)
 Taxi weight / Ramp weight

 Taxi Weight / Ramp Weight denotes the weight of

the aircraft at push back, the Ramp fuel has been
taken in and the complete load is on board. This is the
moment in which the aircraft reaches its highest
weight.
 Take-off Weight

 As soon as the engines are started, the taxi fuel is drawn on.
 When the aircraft is at the beginning of the runway and
starts its ‘Take-off roll’, the weight of the aircraft is at its
‘Take-off Weight.’
 Landing Weight

 Without any unforeseen circumstances, the Landing

Weight of the aircraft will be Take-off Weight
minus Trip / Burn fuel.
 Overload Underload
Overload : This can occur Underload : Underload is the
When the Actual Traffic Load Difference between Maximum
Is higher than the Allowable Allowable Traffic Load and the
Traffic Load. Actual Traffic Load
The aircraft is unable to depart
Until the Traffic Load
Is reduced. Underload
Fuel – versus – Traffic Load
 Aircraft weight definitions
 Dry Operating Weight = Basic Operating Weight + Role equipment.

 Zero Fuel Weight = Dry Operating Weight + Traffic Load

 Operating Weight = Dry Operating Weight + Take-off Fuel

 Ramp Weight = Zero Fuel Weight + Ramp Fuel

 Take-off Weight = Zero Fuel Weight + Take off Fuel

 Landing Weight = Zero Fuel Weight + Fuel Reserves

 Structural Weight Limitations
 The following Maximum weights are determined
by the aircraft manufacturer:
 Maximum Taxi Weight (MTW)/ RAMP WEIGHT
The Maximum Taxi Weight is indicated by the manufacturer
(Boeing). If exceeded this will cause structural damage or
the landing gear to give way.
 Maximum Take-off Weight (MTOW)
If an aircraft exceeds the Maximum Take-off Weight one
consequence could be that braking distance available in case
of aborted take- off is insufficient.
 Structural Weight Limitations
 Maximum Landing Weight (MLW)
If an aircraft endures heavy damage to its landing gear on
landing, this can be the result of exceeding the Maximum
Landing Weight.

Wing Root

 Maximum Zero Fuel Weight (MZFW)

Because of the high forces made upon the connection
between the fuselage and wings (wing root). In the case of
the fuselage being too heavy, the wing root could fail and
the wings break off.
 Regulated Take off-
Weight
(RTOW)

 Regulated Take- off Weight is another name for Maximum Take –off Weight
adjusted for local conditions. For example the aircraft captain may regulate the
Take-off weight for reasons of: Take-off field lengths, strong winds, air
temperature, runway surface conditions, WAT limit e.t.c. on the day.

 Regulated Take-off Weight should never exceed the Maximum Take-off

weight set by the manufacturer .
Maximum weights must never
be exceeded
 Balance
At the end of this presentation you will be able to
indicate :
 Centre of Gravity and why it is significant on an aircraft
 Concept of Balance
 Calculations of Balance / Trim
 Limitations on Balance / Trim envelope
 Optimum Trim
 Documentation
 Balance
Introduction
In the first part of this presentation it turned out that
the weight of the aircraft is bound to stringent
weight limits for safe flight.
The result of the wrong weight distribution of the
total load (passengers, baggage and fuel) over the
aircraft means that it may get out of ‘Balance’.
Therefore the load has to be spread in such a way
that the balance limits for the aircraft are not
exceeded.
 Centre of Gravity

 The centre of gravity of a body can simply be defined as the

point through which weight acts. It is the point of balance of
an aircraft.
 Why calculate the ‘Centre of Gravity’ position?

It is necessary to carefully calculate the loaded Centre of

Gravity (C of G) of an aircraft for two reasons :
 In the first place, a check must be made to ensure that it lies
within the published ‘safe’ limits or ‘envelope’, in order that
it can fly safely. The aircraft is balanced in flight by forces
produced by the tailplane, but there’s a limit to what they
can achieve, hence there is a need to limit the Centre of
Gravity range in such a way that the tailplane will always be
able to cope.
 The second reason is that the aircraft pilot needs to set the
HORIZONTAL STABILIZER in order that the aircraft is
balanced at take-off . The pilot can ‘feel’ what is needed in
flight, but before take-off they have no way of knowing
other than by the calculation of Centre of Gravity position
which is made by Trim graph (manual loadsheets) or by
Approved computer programmes.
 Aircraft Centre of Gravity (Cof G)

Horizontal Stabilizer

For each aircraft type therefore the designers specify a ‘Safe Range’ or ‘Safe
Loading Limits’.
Providing the loading is controlled within these limits any resulting ‘nose-up’ or
‘nose-down’ tendancy can be corrected in flight by the forces from the
Horizontal Stabilizer.
 Movement of Cof G when load is put in
the Holds.
The C of G is assumed to lie within the Safe Range’

Any load placed in the forward Hold will cause the Cof G to move forward and
the distance per 1000 kg can be calculated. Similarly, the movement per 1000
kg in the Aft Hold can be determined.
It can be seen that 1000kg could be placed in the forward Hold without exceeding
the forward limit or 2000kg in the Aft Hold.
You did say put everything in the back…….didn’t you!
 Centre of Gravity
 If an aircraft is loaded, the position of the load will
influence the balance.
 Weight placed in the back of the aircraft, will make
the aircraft ‘Tail Heavy’
 Weight placed in the front of the aircraft will make
the aircraft ‘Nose Heavy’.
 The Centre of Pressure of an Aircraft

Lift

The Centre of Pressure (Point of Lift)

The force that the wings produce is called ‘Lift’.
However there is a problem , not every position across the wing provides equal lift.
The broadest part (Wing Root) produces more than the end (wing tip).
This means there must be a point which indicates an Average point of lift, this is called
the Centre of Pressure.
 The Centre of Pressure of an Aircraft
 The centre of pressure is to lift what centre of gravity is to weight.

 The centre of pressure may be defined as the point (on the chord line) through
which all aerodynamic forces are said to act.

C.O.P

chord
 Aircraft in balance
Lift
(Centre of Pressure)

Weight
(Centre of Gravity)
 When the Centre of Pressure and Centre of Gravity are
located on the same point the aircraft is in balance.
 Correction Stabilizer
Lift
Centre of
Pressure

Compensating
unbalance by
adjusting the
Centre of Gravity
Horizontal Stabilizer
 When an aircraft is tail heavy, the Centre of
Pressure (point of lift) is more to the front than the
Centre of Gravity. This unbalance can be corrected
with the Horizontal Stabilizer.
 Horizontal Stabilizer
Rudder

Elevator

Stabilizer

 It is important to realize, however that the deflection of the

stabilizer is limited. Therefore it is not possible to correct
differences between the Centre of Gravity and the point of
lift that are too big. In short, these differences have to be
within certain limits.This is known as the ‘Trim Envelope’.
 Horizontal Stabilizer Controls
Trim switch
Elevator

Trim /
Balance Tab

Trim Wheel
Horizontal Stabilizer
The STAB TRIM moves the entire horizontal tail
assembly so that the elevators are always slip streaming
 Mean Aerodynamic Chord
(MAC)
 As we have already said, it is the wings of an aircraft that
produce the ‘Lift’ and this means somewhere in the middle
is the average point of ‘Lift’ known as the Centre of
Pressure.

Point of average Lift

‘Centre of Pressure’
 If the wing is cut at this position, a crosscut of the wing
profile can be seen. The line running from the leading
edge to the trailing edge of the wing profile, is called
the chord CHORD

chord

Mean
Aerodynamic
Chord
 The leading edge of the wing is at 0% MAC, whilst the
trailing edge is at 100% MAC

Leading edge
MAC Trailing edge

8% 28%

Safe
range

0% 23% MAC 100%

Centre of Gravity

 Since lift and weight are both related to aircraft balance,

and since lift is produced by the wing, it is useful to
express the Centre of Gravity position in relation to the
MAC. Hence expressions like 23% MAC, which means
23% along the Mean Aerodynamic Chord
 Percentage of MAC

SAFE
RANGE

The aircraft Safe Range will be defined as percentage of MAC. In the above
example the Safe Range for a B737-300 is between 8 and 28% MAC.
 All figures relating to the position of the Centre of
Gravity, are expressed as a percentage MAC, and you
will fill in these figures on the loadsheet in order to
determine the stabilizer setting.
 Not only the Centre of Gravity, but also the safe limits
fixed by MANUFACTURERS are expressed as a %
MAC. eg: Boeing for the B737-300 has determined that
the ‘safe range’ to be between 8 and 28% MAC.
Mean Aerodynamic Chord
8 28
8% 28%
Safe unsafe
range

unsafe
0% 100% % MAC
 Optimum Trim
 We know that the Centre of Gravity must be inside certain limits,
Known as the Centre of Gravity envelope.But there is one particular
Centre of Gravity position where the aircraft will perform best in
cruise. With the Centre of Gravity in this position , little or no
Stabilizer Trim should be required, and the aircraft will be getting its
best / optimum fuel efficiency.
 For example: The Optimum Trim for a Boeing B737 is slightly tail
heavy.
 Documentation

 Trimming the aircraft is carried out in two ways :

 Trim Graph (Manual Loadsheet)
 Computers (Approved programme only / Loadmaster)
 Responsibility :
As a Despatcher it is your responsibility to ensure that the load on the
Loadsheet exactly corresponds to the load on the aircraft. Also making
sure that the actual Centre of Gravity is within ‘Safe Limits’ before you
hand it to the aircraft captain.
 Certificate declaration :
 “ I hereby certify that this aircraft is loaded in accordance with the
current Loading Instructions of the operator.”
 Remember : This is a LEGAL Document and must be treated as so.
 Summary of Weight & Balance
 The amount of Traffic load which an aircraft can carry will depend on
the Dry Operating Weight, the amount of fuel and the permitted Take
Off Weight.
 Mandatory weights which must not be exceeded are :
 Maximum Zero Fuel Weight (MZFW)
 Maximum Taxi Weight (MTW)
 Maximum Take Off Weight (MTOW)
 Maximum Permitted Take-off Weight (RTOW)
 Maximum Landing Weight (MLW)
 In addition to the weight limits, the aircraft Centre of Gravity must lie
within ‘safe limits’ / ‘Envelope’, and that there will be sufficient
Elevator control available at all stages of the flight.
 A record must be kept using Manual / Computer loadsheets for every
flight.
Regional Air Suport
 Aircraft weight definitions
• Dry Operating Weight = Basic Operating Weight + ……………?

• Zero Fuel Weight = Dry Operating Weight + ……………..?

• Take-off Weight = Zero Fuel Weight + ………….. ………..?

• Landing Weight = Zero Fuel Weight + ……….. ………….?