INTRODUCTION TO RESEARCH

METHODOLOGY

BY- Chaltu B (BSc, MPH/RH)

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 INTRODUCTION
 Research is critical in health because it leads to new
discoveries and can change peoples’ lives by improving
health and wellbeing
 Research shapes the world we live in by repeatedly
questioning and testing human knowledge and
understanding.
 There are many ways in which humans acquire
knowledge and gather information in order to solve
problems
 More complex questions may be answered through a
process of logical reasoning/ scientific approach.

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 .

SCIENTIFIC APPROACH

 The most sophisticated method of acquiring

knowledge that has been developed.

 Generally more reliable than other methods

 Approach used most often to perform health research

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 Purpose of Health Research
To create knowledge essential for action to improve
health

Without good knowledge health intervention would

not have neither logical nor empirical basis and are
bound to fail.

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 Importance of Health Research
Guiding action

Developing new tools

Saving resources

Enhancing capacity development

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 Research Basics
1. What research is and isn’t

2. Characteristics of Good Research

3. Sources of research projects

4. Steps in undertaking Research

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 1.What Research Is Not

Research isn’t information gathering:

 Gathering information from resources such as books
or magazines isn’t research.
 No contribution to new knowledge.

Research isn’t the transportation of facts:

 Merely transporting facts from one resource to
another doesn’t constitute research.
 No contribution to new knowledge although this
might make existing knowledge more accessible.
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 What Research Is
 A systematic investigation, involving the collection of
information (data), to solve a problem or contribute to
knowledge about a theory or practice.

 Relies on methods and principles that will produce

credible and supportable results.

 Research helps provide scientific understanding

and solves practical problems.

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 2. Characteristics of Good Research

1. The purpose of the research should be clearly

defined
2. The research procedure used should be described in
sufficient detail
A. To permit another researcher to repeat the
research
B. keeping the continuity of what has already been
attained.

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 Characteristics of Good Research
3. The researcher should report with complete
frankness, flaws in procedural design and estimate
their effects upon the findings.
4. The validity and reliability of the data should be
checked carefully.
5. Conclusions and recommendations should be
confined to those justified by the data of the
research.

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 3. Sources of Research Projects
Observation

Literature reviews

Professional conferences

Experts

Theories

Ideas from others

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 4. Steps in undertaking a research
Process
The research process is a step‐by‐step process of
developing a research project/thesis.
The research process consists of a number of closely
related activities, but such activities overlap
At times, the first step determines the nature of the
last step to be undertaken.
As you progress from one step to the next, it is
commonly necessary to backup, revise, add additional
material or even change your topic completely.

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 4. Steps in undertaking a research
I. Problem identification and definition
II. Review relevant literature
III. Choose the appropriate study design
IV. Development of proposals
V. Obtain Ethical Clearance
VI. Issues about funding
VII. Data collection
VIII. Data analysis
IX. Interpreting results
X. Writing a report and Disseminate Findings
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Types of Research
 Types Of Research
• System #1: Based on purpose:
– Basic research
– Applied research
• System #2: Based on type of data
– Quantitative research
– Qualitative research
1. Applied vs. Fundamental
• Applied research : Applied research aims at finding
a solution for an immediate problem facing a
society and necessary to identify priority problems
and to design and evaluate policies and programmes
that will deliver the greatest health benefits, making
optimal use of available resources.
• Basic research/Fundamental : Necessary to
generate new knowledge and technologies to deal
with major unresolved health problems. It does not
necessarily produce results of immediate practical
value.
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 2. Quantitative vs. Qualitative:
• Quantitative research is based on the measurement of
quantity or amount. It is applicable to phenomena that
can be expressed in terms of quantity.

• Qualitative research, on the other hand, is concerned

with qualitative phenomenon. For instance, when we
are interested in investigating the reasons for human
behavior (i.e., why people think or do certain things)

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 Components Of The Research Proposal
• Topic
• Introduction
• Literature review

• Objectives
• Methods and materials
• Work Plan

• Budget
• References
• Annex
 Components Of The Research Proposal

Preliminary Section Main/ narrative section

• Cover Page • Introduction

• Title Page • Literature review

• Acknowledgements • Objectives

• Acronyms and Abbreviations • Methods and materials

• Table of Contents • Work Plan

• List of Tables (if any) • Budget

• List of Figures (if any) • References

• Summary/Abstract • Appendix
 Components/outline of Research Proposal
1. Research topic(12-20 words) 9. Ethical
Considerations(1/2
2. Summary(1 page) page)
3. Back ground of the study (1 ½ 10. Work plan(1 page)
page
11. Dissemination and
4. Statement of the Problem (1 ½ Utilization of
page) Results(1/2 page)
5. Literature review (2-4 page) 12. References
6. Justification of the study (1/2 13. Annex
page)
7. Objectives(1/2 page)
8. Methodology (3 page)
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Selection of research topic

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 Selection of research topic
 The first thing that should guide your choice of a topic to
study is your interest. If you are not interested in the subject
then you are unlikely to enjoy the experience of research.
 Decide on a general area of interest initially.
 Discuss your ideas with others/supervisors
– The best way of understanding the problem is to discuss it with
your colleagues or with those having some expertise in the
matter/supervisors.

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 Selection of research topic
 Examine all available literature to get aware with the
selected problem.

 The basic outcome of this review will be the

knowledge as to what data and other materials are
available for operational purposes which will enable
you to specify your own research problem in a
meaningful context.

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• If the answer to the research question is obvious, we
are dealing with a management problem that may be
solved without further research.
Whether a problem requires research depends on three
conditions:
I) There should be a perceived difference or discrepancy
between what it is and what it should be;
II) The reason(s) for this difference should be unclear (so
that it makes sense to develop a research question); and
III) There should be more than one possible and plausible
answer to the question (or solution to the problem).
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 Example 1
♣ Problem situation: In district “ Y “ a report showed that in the first month there
were 500 children under one year old who started immunization, but at the end
of the year it was found out that there were only 25 children who completed their
vaccination.

♣ Discrepancy: All the 500 children at district “ Y “ should have completed their
vaccination but only 5% out of those who started vaccination have completed.
♣ Problem (research) question: Why only 5% of the children completed their
vaccination?

Definite answer: Out of the 1 hospital, 2 health centers and 10 health stations
found in district “Y” only 2 health stations were functioning, the rest were closed
due to insecurity in the area.

Does it needs research?

In the above example, assuming that all the given information is true, there is no
need of undertaking a research, since definite answer is obtained to the problem
situation.
 Example 2
► Problem situation: In district “Z” (population 100,000) there are 2 health
centers, 1 hospital and 15 health stations and all of them function
smoothly. However, at the end of the year it was found that the EPI
coverage was only 25%.
► Discrepancy: Although district “Z ” had 100% availability of health
services and at least 80% of the children should have had full
vaccinations the EPI coverage was only 25% as seen above.

►Problem question: What factors influence the low EPI coverage in

district “Z”?
Possible answers:
• Mothers might have problems for not attending in the EPI sessions.
• The MCH, EPI, OPD, etc… programs might not have been integrated;
hence children might have missed opportunities in getting immunization.
• Child illness
• Thus, the above problem situation is researchable.
 Criteria for selecting a research topic
1. Relevance
2. Avoidance of duplication
3. Urgency of data needed (timeliness)
4. Local authorities acceptability of study
5. Feasibility of study
6. Applicability of results
7. Ethical acceptability
8. Interest of the researcher

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 A) Criteria for selecting a research topic

1. Relevance: The topic you choose should be a priority

problem:
– How large or widespread is the problem?
– Who is affected?
– How severe is the problem?
– Is it the felt need of the community?

2. Avoidance of duplication: Investigate whether the topic has

been researched.
– If the topic has been researched, the results should be reviewed to
explore whether major questions that deserve further investigation
remain unanswered. If not, another topic should be chosen.
 Selection criterion...

3. Feasibility: Consider the complexity of the problem

and the resources you will require to carry out the
study.
4. Political acceptability: It is advisable to research a
topic that has the interest and support of the
authorities. This will facilitate the smooth conduct of
the research and increases the chance that the results
of the study will be implemented.
 Selection criterion...

5. Applicability of possible results and recommendations:

– Is it likely that the recommendations from the study
will be applied?
6. Urgency of data needed :
– How urgently are the results needed for making a
decision?
 Selection criterion...

7. Ethical acceptability
– We should always consider the possibility that we
may inflict harm on others while carrying out
research.
– Therefore, it will be useful to review the proposed
study.
 Scales For Rating Research Topics
Relevance
1 = Not relevant
2 = Relevant
3 = very relevant

Avoidance of duplication
1 = Sufficient information already available
2 = Some information available but major issues not covered
3 = No sound information available on which to base problem-solving

Feasibility
1 = Study not feasible considering available resources
2 = Study feasible considering available resources
3 = Study very feasible considering available resources

Political acceptability
1 = Topic not acceptable
2 = Topic somewhat acceptable
3 = Topic fully acceptable 32
Applicability
1 = No chance of recommendations being implemented
2 = Some chance of recommendations being implemented
3 = Good chance of recommendations being implemented

Urgency
1 = Information not urgently needed
2 = Information could be used but a delay of some months would be
acceptable
3 = Data very urgently needed for decision-making

Ethical acceptability
1 = Major ethical problems
2 = Minor ethical problems
3 = No ethical problems

The above rating should be based on the existing data and not on mere
assumptions.

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Statement of the problem
 FORMULATING THE STATEMENT
OF THE PROBLEM

Why it is important to state and define the problem well?

Because:-

1.Is the foundation for the further development of the

research proposal.

2.Makes easier finding information and reports of similar

studies from which your own study design can be

benefited.
3. Enables the researcher to systematically point out

–why the proposed research on the problem should be

undertaken, and

–what expectation to achieve with the study results.

• This is important to be highlighted when you present your

project to community members, health staff, relevant

ministries and donor agencies that need to support your

study or give their consent.

Information included in statement of
the problem.

a. A brief description of socio-economic and cultural

characteristics .
• Include a few descriptive statistics, if available, to help
describe the context in which the problem occurs.
 Information included in... problem.
b. A concise description of the nature of the problem
– Basic description of the research problem
– The discrepancy between what is existing and
what should be and the size, distribution and
severity of the problem (who is affected, where,
since when, and what are the consequences for
those affected and for the services).
 Information ...

c. An analysis of the major factors that may influence the

problem and a discussion of why certain factors need
more investigation if the problem is to be fully
understood.
d. A brief description of any solutions to the problem that
have been tried in the past, how well they have
worked, and why further research is needed
(justification for your study).
 Information ...
• E. A description of the type of information expected
to result from the study and how this information will
be used to help solve the problem (Significance of
the study).

• A list of abbreviations may be annexed to the

proposal, but each abbreviation also has to be written
out in full when introduced in the text the first time.
• Think back to grade school and you will recall how
your English teacher probably taught you about the
five "Ws" - who, what, where, when, and why -
questions that you need to answer when writing an
essay.
• Who the problem affects
• What the outcome would be if the problem was not solved
• Where the problem is taking place
• When the problem needs to be fixed
• Why is it important for the problem to be fixed
Literature review
Objective:
– What is Literature review
– Why it is necessary
– Resources(Source of information)
– How to write a literature review
– Conceptual framework
– Referencing
 What is literature review

• Literature: Printed information about something

• Review: Consider carefully
• Literature review is an overview of previous
research on your research topic
• a comprehensive review of relevant published
research
 An Effective Literature Review.

• Appropriate depth, consistency, clarity and brevity, and

effective analysis and synthesis

• Explain how one piece of research builds on another

•  Creates a firm foundation for advancing knowledge

• It facilitates theory development and uncovers areas where

research is needed
 Why/use of LR

• Prevent duplicating
• It increase your knowledge and helps to refining statement of the
problem
• Become more familiar with the various types of methods
• It provides a framework for establishing the importance of the study
• It serves as a benchmark for comparing the results with other
findings
 Describe the characteristics of previous study (where, when, who
conduct, findings, conclusion…)
 Identify the GAP in knowledge
 Structure Of Literature Review

• Introduction
• Gives a quick idea of the topic of the literature review, such
as the central theme or organizational pattern.

• Body
• Contains your discussion of sources.

• Conclusions

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 Resources

Libraries
– Published information (books, journals..)
Internet/ web sites
– PUBMED / MEDLINE:http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/PubMed/
– Google scholar
– WHO website: - http://www. who.int
– Free Medical Journals :-http://www.freemedicaljournals.com
– HINARI:- http://www. Healthinternetwork.net
– Medspace:- http://www. medscape.com
 How to write a review of literature?

• Take research problem

• Find a focus
• Organize
• Decide the order of issue to discuss
• Write coherent discussion in your own words
• Be critical to avoid possible bias
• Well quoted
 Referencing
• Indicates from where :
– ideas, theories, and other evidence can be found.

• Referencing
– gives appropriate credit to the sources and authors

– shows the range of literatures you used

– allows the reader to refer the materials used
– evade plagiarism
 Citation Management Tools

• Using a citation management tool like EndNote will save

you much time and effort
– Organize and store references
– Make in-text citations based on required style
– Create a list of references based on required style
 Referencing Style

– APA Referencing Style

– Harvard Referencing Style

– Vancouver Referencing Style

 Vancouver System

For an article the following information should be noted:

• Author(s)’ Surname. Title of article. Name of Journal. Year,
Volume(number): page numbers of article.
– Example1: Louria D. Emerging- and re-emerging infections:
The societal variables. International Journal of Infectious
Disease. 1996, 1(2):59-62.
 References

• If the work you need to reference has more than six authors,
you should list the first six authors, followed by ‘et al.’
• Example: Petrie KJ, Mueller JT, Schirmbeck F, Donkin L,
Broadbent E, Ellis CJ, et al. Effect of providing information
about normal test results on patients’ reassurance: randomized
controlled trial. British Medical Journal. [Online]
2007;334(7589): 352-354
 Plagiarism includes

Using another writer’s words without proper citation

1. Using another writer’s ideas without proper citation

2. Citing a source but reproducing the exact word without

quotation marks
3. Borrowing the structure of another author’s phrases/sentences
without giving the source
4. Using paper-writing service or having a friend write the paper
 Conceptual Framework

• A concept is “a logical, mental construction of one or more

relationships”
• Focus on relationships between variables
• A set of interrelated concepts that represent an image of a
phenomena
• A structure that provides guidance for a research

• Diagram of proposed causal linkages among a set of concepts

believe to be related to a particular problem
• Consists of concepts pulled together as a map for a study 58
 Conceptual Framework

• Serve to:
Summarize and integrate knowledge
Provide explanations for causal linkages
Generate hypotheses

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 SOCIO DEMOGRAPHIC FACTORS

Age, sex, profession, service year, marital

status etc.

Needle stick
injury

Behaviors
Work environment • Education or training,
• Working department
• Attitude on safe
• Flow of clients
• Favorability of work injection
place • perception of risk of
NSI
 Hypothesis?

• A formal statement of the expected relationships among

variables

• It is a tentative and formal prediction about the relationship

between two or more variables in the population being studied.

Null vs Research Hypothesis
• Null hypothesis (HO)
– Used for statistical testing and interpretation.
– Example: There is no relationship between gender and
knowledge of sexually transmitted diseases among teenagers
– The null hypothesis then gets "rejected" if the data analysis
demonstrate that there is a significant relationship between these
two variables.
• Research Hypothesis (HA)
– Alternative hypothesis to the null hypothesis and states that this
is a relationship between two or more variables.
– Example: Teenage boys are better informed about STDs than
teenage girls
• “
QUESTION?
 Objective

 At the end of this session you should be able to:

• State reasons for writing objectives

• Describe the difference between general and specific
objectives.
• Discuss the characteristics of research objectives.
 Importance Of Developing Objectives
• Focus the study
• Avoid the collection of unnecessary data
• facilitate the development of research methodology and help to
orient the

– collection,
– analysis,

– interpretation and
– utilization of data
• Helps for evaluating the research project
 Categories of objectives
1.General objective:
• Summarizes what is to be achieved by the study in general
terms
• Should be clearly related to the statement of the problem

2.Specific objectives
 Originate from the general objective or breakdown of GO

 Logically connected parts of the general objective

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 How to write the objectives?
• Focused, each specific objective cover a single point/idea
• Ordered in a logical sequence, e.g. We don’t put associated
factors before prevalence
• Realistic and feasible to answer
• Operational, using action verbs such as:
– determine - verify-identify
– describe - assess - compare
– calculate - establish -explore
• Avoid use of non-action verbs( to appreciate, study, understand,
believe , know)
• Measurable outcomes at the end of the research 68
Objectives Should Be:-
• Specific

• Measurable
• Achievable
• Realistic
• Time bound
 Example- 1
• Problem= unknown magnitude of HTN in Bule Hora town
• Title= Prevalence and Associated Factors of Hypertension among
Adults of Bule Hora Town, southern Ethiopia, 2018
• General Objective= 
– To assess the prevalence and associated factors of hypertension
among adults of Bule Hore town, southern Ethiopia, April 2018
• Specific objectives
– To determine the prevalence of hypertension among adult of Bule
Hora town, southern Ethiopia, April 2018
– To identify factors associated with hypertension among adult of
Bule Hora town , southern Ethiopia, April 2018
Methods and Materials
Indicates the methodological steps you will take to answer every
question or to test every hypothesis or problem stated in your study.

– Types of study designs – Operational definitions

– Study area and period – data collection and data
– Source and Study population quality control
– Inclusion and Exclusion – data processing and analysis
Criteria
– Ethical considerations
– Sample size and sampling
– Dissemination of Results
procedures
– Variables
 Study Design

Definition: Study design refers to the procedures and methods,

predetermined by an investigator, to be adhered in conducting a
research project.
It is a logical model that guides the investigator in the various stages
of the research.
Study design determines the credibility of the study.

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Fig. Schematic Representations of Different Studies

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75
 I. Descriptive Studies

 Mainly concerned with the distribution of diseases with respect

to time, place, and person. It answers: when? Where? Who?
 Generate testable Hypothesis as to the cause of disease.
 it is the first step in the search for disease determinants or risk
factors
 it is less expensive and less time consuming than analytic
studies
 it is the most common type epidemiological design strategy in
medical literatures
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 I. Descriptive Studies
Three main types:-

• Correlational/ecological

• Case report or case series

• Cross-sectional
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1. Co-relational / Ecological studies

Uses data from the entire population to compare disease

frequencies
Does not proved individual data

Cause could not be determined rather presents average

exposure level in the community
e.g. Hypertension rates and average per capita salt consumption
compared between two communities

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 Correlational/ Ecological studies

Limitation
Strength
• Unable to link exposure to
• Can be done quickly
occurrence of disease at individual
• Cheap
level
• Often uses already
• Data represents average exposure
available data level rather than actual individual
values" Ecological fallacy" or bias.

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 2. Case Reports Or Case Series

• Describes the experience of a single or a group of patients with

similar diagnosis or health problem

Useful for:

• The recognition of new diseases

• The formulation of hypothesis

• Detection of epidemics

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 Case Report:

• It is the study of health profile of a single individual using a

careful and detailed report by one or more clinicians

• it is made using Hx, P/E. Lab. Investigation

• it is usually documented if there is unusual medical occurrence,

thus it may be first clue for identification of a new disease

• Useful in constructing a natural history of individual diseases

 Case Series

• The individual case report can be expanded to a case series, which

describes characteristics of a number of patients with a given
disease
• Often used to detect the emergence of new disease or an epidemic
• E.g. the first Five AIDS cases in USA

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 Case Reports or Case Series

Strength Limitation
• To see S/S • Reports Based on single or
• For case definition few patients.
• Helpful to see natural Hx of • Lack of appropriate
diseases comparison group
• Use full for critical thinking,
hypothesis generation

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 Cross Sectional Study

• Generally called prevalence study

• Exposure and disease statuses are assessed simultaneously among

the individuals at the same point in time.

• Measures of association are usually made using “OR”

• Majority of the studies world wide are cross-sectional

• useful to see association rather than testing hypothesis

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 Cross-Sectional Studies

Advantages Disadvantages

 Less expensive/ easier to conduct • Cannot establish whether the

• Can consider several exposures exposure preceded disease or

and several diseases disease influence exposure

 Egg and hen phenomena: Since
• provide much information useful exposure and disease status is
assessed at a single point in time,
for planning health services and
temporal relationship between
medical programs exposure and disease can not be
clearly determined.
 It may not show strong cause-effect
relationships if sample size is small.
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 II. Analytic Epidemiological Studies

• Focuses on the determinants of a disease by testing the hypothesis

formulated from descriptive studies,
• with the ultimate goal of judging whether a particular exposure
causes or prevents disease.
• Analytic studies are broadly classified into two - observational and
interventional studies.

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 II. Analytic Epidemiological Studies

Purpose
1.Search for cause and effect
2. Quantify the association between exposure and out come

3. Test hypothesis about causal relationship

• Proof vs sufficient evidence
• It focuses on determinations of disease by testing hypothesis
• Answer questions like "why" and "How"

• Hypothesis is tested using appropriate comparison group

87
 II. Analytic Epidemiological Studies
Types:
1. Observational
2. Interventional
Difference lies on the role of investigator:
a) In observational the investigator simply observes the natural
course of event

b) In interventional investigator assigns study subjects to exposure

and non-exposure & then
follows them to measure disease occurrence. 88
 2.1. Observational Studies

• Information is obtained by observation of the event

• No intervention is done, no deliberate interference with natural

course of disease.

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 A. Case-Control
• A study design in which individuals:

– who have the disease under study, also called cases, are
compared to individuals
– free of disease (controls) regarding past exposures.
– The purpose is to determine if there are one or more
factors associated with the disease under study.
 Case-Control Study
Exposed

Cases
Unexposed

Exposed

Controls
Unexposed

Past Present
 Advantage and disadvantage of case- control study
• Easy to conduct as no follow up • The study depends upon the
is required history given by the subject.
• Gives faster results, Inexpensive Hence recall bias can occur
• Suitable for rare diseases or • Sometimes finding
diseases with a long latency appropriate control is
period between exposure and difficult
disease manifestation
• More than one risk factors can
be studied simultaneously
• Ethical problem lesser as disease
has already occurred
 Example of case-control study
• Birth defect from Thalidomide

• Children with birth defect (cases) children without birth defect

(control) then assess their exposure status of their mother to
thalidomide
 TB prevented by BCG vaccine

 Take TB infected and non infected people and Ask them if they

ever had BCG vaccination

 2.1.2 Observational Studies
B). Cohort Study:

 Health subjects are classified on their exposure status or

determinants of interest &

 then followed for a specified time to determine the

development of the disease or outcome of interest.

94
 2.1.2 Cohort studies
Classify on basis of presence or absence of exposure 
follow up to determine the development of disease in each
exposure group
 Suitable for rare exposures
 Not suitable for rare outcomes
 Strength And Limitations of Cohort Study
Strength Limitations

Is particular value when the It is inefficient for the evaluation

exposure is rare of rare diseases

can examine multiple effects of a can be expensive in case of

single exposure prospective

Can elucidate/make clear/ validity of the results can be

temporal relation ship b/n seriously affected by losses to
exposure and disease follow up

allows direct measurement of If retrospective , requires the

incidence of disease in the exposed availability of adequate record
and non exposed 96
 2.2. Interventional / Experimental studies
• The purpose of the experimental research is to establish the existence
of a cause- and- effect relationship between two variables.
• The researcher does something about the disease or exposure and
observes the changes.

• Always prospective

• Investigator assigns subjects to exposure and non exposure and

make follow up to measures the occurrence of disease

• Very expensive

• Difficult to over come ethical issues 97

 Classification
1. Based on population

A. clinical trial - usually performed in clinical setting and

the subjects are patients.

B. Field trial - used in testing medicine for preventive

purpose and the subjects are healthy people. E.g.
vaccine trial

C. Community trial- unit of the study is group of

people/community. E.g. fluoridation of water to prevent
dental caries. 98
 Limitation
1. Ethical considerations
substances already known to be harmful should not be
used in this study.

2. Feasibility/ practical issues

-difficult to find a sufficiently large study subjects

3. Cost - experimental studies are often very expensive

because of the long follow-up period.
 Study Area and Period

 Study Area/Setting

• Where will the research take place

• The setting where the study will be conducted
• Mentioned:

– The location of the area/setting

– Size of the population
– Availability of Health service
– Other issue related with your research
 Study Period

• The period where the data will be collected

– Example: the study will be conducted from
January to March, 2013.
 Population & Sample
• Target population: A collection of items that have
something in common for which we wish to draw
conclusions at a particular time.
• Study Population: The specific population from
which data are collected
· Sample: A subset of a study population, about
which information is actually obtained.

 
 Eg.: In a study of the prevalence of
HIV among orphan children in
Addis Ababa, a random sample of
orphan children in Lideta Kifle
Ketema were included.
Sample
Target Population?
Study Population Study population?
Sample?
Target Population
 Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria
• Inclusion criteria: The set of criteria which is important to
include the study participant in to the research
• Ex: Health care workers currently works in selected health care
facility in West Guji zone who are available during data
collection period
• Exclusion criteria: which help us to exclude those individuals
which will not be part of our study. They should be part of the
study population
• Ex: HCWs who are sick and unable to fill the questionnaires
 Sample

• In research terms a sample is a group of people, objects, or

items that are taken from a larger population for measurement
• A subset of a study population, about which information is
actually obtained
• The sample should be representative of the population to
ensure that we can generalize the findings from the research
sample to the population as a whole
105
 Advantage Of Sampling

Samples offer many benefits:

• Save costs: Less expensive to study the sample than the population.
• Save time: Less time needed to study the sample than the
population .
• Accuracy: Since sampling is done with care and studies are
conducted by skilled and qualified interviewers, the results are
expected to be accurate.

106
 Limitations Of Sampling
There is always error

Sampling error is any type of bias that is attributable

to mistakes in either drawing a sample or determining the

sample size

Non-sampling error is any error which will be

committed during data collection, coding, entry, and so

on
Sample Size Determination
Steps in selecting a sample

111
Sampling Technique
 Sampling Technique

Sampling is the process of selecting a small number

of elements from a larger defined target group of

elements such that the information gathered from the

small group will allow judgment to be made about the

larger groups.
 Types of Sampling Methods

Samples Method

Probability Samples
Non-Probability
Samples
Simple Stratified
Volunteer Snowball
sampling
Random
Sampling
Quota
Judgmental Cluster
Systematic
Convenience
Multistage Random Sampling
114
 Non-probability sampling

– Every element does not have equal probability of being

chosen in the sample

– The sample is non representative

– Results may not be generalized

– When using non-probability sampling, sample size is unrelated

to accuracy, so cost benefit consideration must be used.

115
 Non-probability samples…

• Convenience sampling: This involves collecting a sample from

somewhere convenient to you moving to the shopping center,
local school, church etc
• Sometimes called accidental sampling, opportunity sampling or
grab sampling
• Judgmental sampling: Sampling based on some judgment or
experience of the researcher
• Quota sampling: In this method the investigator interviews as
many people in each category of study unit as he can find until he
116
has filled his quota.
 Non-probability samples…

• Volunteer sampling: is a sampling technique where

participants self-select to become part of a study

• Snowball sampling: is a non-probability sampling

method where the first enrolled research participants help

recruit future subjects for a study

• Initial subject help enrollment of other study participants

 Probability Sampling Methods
1. Simple random sampling

2. Systematic random sampling

3. Stratified random sampling

4. Cluster sampling

5. Multi-stage sampling

119
 1. Simple random sampling

• In simple random sampling, each member of a population

has an equal chance of being included in the sample.

• The list of serially numbered sampling units (1 to N), and

• then a random number table is used to select n individuals out

of N.

120
121
122
 2. Systematic Random Sampling

• Sometimes called interval sampling , systematic

sampling means that there is a gap, or interval, between

each selected unit in the sample

123
 Steps In Systematic Random Sampling
1. Number the units on your frame from 1 to N (where N is the total
population size).
2. Determine the sampling interval (K) by dividing the number of units

in the population by the desired sample size

3. Select a number between one and K at random. This number is called

the random start and would be the first number included in your
sample.
4. Select every Kth unit after that first number

124
125
126
 3. Stratified Random Sampling

• Stratified random sampling is a method of sampling that involves the

division of a population into smaller sub-groups known as strata

• The strata are formed based on members' shared attributes or

characteristics such as income or educational attainment

• To select from each strata, other sampling methods can be used

within each stratum

127
 4. Cluster Sampling
• When a list of groupings of study units is available (e.g. villages,
etc.) or can be easily compiled, a number of these groupings can be
randomly selected.
• The selection of groups of study units (clusters) instead of
the selection of study units individually is called cluster sampling.
Clusters are often geographic units (e.g. districts, villages) or
organizational units (e.g. clinics).

129
 5. Multi-stage Sampling
• This method is appropriate when the population is large and
widely scattered.

• The primary sampling unit (PSU) is the sampling unit (or unit of
selection in the sampling procedure) in the first sampling stage.
• The secondary sampling unit (SSU) is the sampling unit in the
second sampling stage, etc.

130
• e.g. After selection of a sample of clusters (e.g. household),
further sampling of individuals may be carried out within each
household selected.
• This constitutes two stage sampling, with the PSU being
households and the SSU being individuals.
• Advantages: less costly, we only need to draw up a list of
individuals in the clusters actually selected, and we can do that
when we arrive there.
• Disadvantage: less accurate than SRS
 Variables

• variable…
– any observation that can take on different values
• attribute…
– a specific value on a variable
 Examples
Variable Attribute

age 18, 19, 20, etc...

Variable Attribute

Gender or sex Male, female

 Examples
Variable Attribute
satisfaction 1 = very satisfied
2 = satisfied
3= somewhat satisfied
4 = not satisfied
5 = not satisfied at all
 Types of Variables

• Independent variable (IV)

• Dependent variable (DV)…
 Dependent vs Independent

 Determined by the statement of the problem and

objectives of the study
 Relationship between smoking and lung cancer
 Independent variable: smoking
 Dependent variable: Lung cancer
 Study on reasons for smoking
 Independent variable: peer pressure, to release stress, etc

 Dependent variable: smoking

136
 Operationalizing Variables
 Some variables are measureable as such, but some need
indicators
Operational definition: Characteristic we would actually
measure
In a set of 10 questions:
 0-3 correct answers  poor
 4-6 correct answers  reasonable
 7-10 correct answers  good

137
 Operationalizing Variables

• In the study to Assess preventive practice towards

COVID-19 among health care workers
• Good practice: in this study, health care workers who
scored points greater than or equal to75% out of 11
preventive practice assessing questions.
• Poor practice: health care workers who scored points
less than 75% out of 11 practice assessing questions.
 Data Collection Methods

 Sources of data

 Types of data collection methods

 Factors considered in choice of method

 Data collection tool

139
 Sources Of Data
Primary Data
New data which are originally collected for a specific
purpose

Examples: Survey

140
 Secondary data

An existing data to investigate research questions

other than those for which the data were originally
gathered (routinely available information).

Examples: Hospital statistics

141
 Types Of Data Collection Methods
Quantitative data collection methods (in numbers)
Using available information (secondary data)

 Interviewing

 Administering questionnaire

Observation

Qualitative data collection methods (in words)

 Focus group discussion (FGD)
 In-depth interview (IDI)or Key informant
interview(KII)
 Observation

142
 Using Available Information

 Census data (EDHS)

 Unpublished reports

 Hospital records

 Information routinely collected by others

143
 Using available information cont…

• Advantage of available data – collection is inexpensive

• Disadvantage of existing data:

– It is some times difficult to gain access to records or

reports

– Data may not always be complete and precise

enough, or too disorganized

 Interviewing

 A technique that involves oral questioning of

respondents (questionnaire)

 Face to face interview

 Telephone interview

145
Administering Written Questionnaire

 Also called self-administered questionnaire

 Questions are presented that are to be answered by the
respondents in written form

 Gather the respondents & give instruction

 Mailing
 Online

146
 Administering Written Questionnaires
Cont…

Advantages:

• Less expensive

• Permits privacy & may result in more honest responses

• Does not require research assistants

• Eliminates bias due to phrasing questions differently with

different respondents
 Administering Written Questionnaires
Cont…

Disadvantages:

• Cannot be used with illiterates

• There is often a low rate of response

• Questions may be misunderstood

 Types Of Questions

 Closed questions
 Open-ended questions
 Semi-opened questions

149
Closed Questions

 A list of possible answers or options

 Commonly used for background variables

What is your marital status?

1. Single
2. Married
3. Divorced
4. Separated
5. Widowed
150
 Open-ended Questions

 Free to answer with fewer limits imposed by the

researcher
 Useful for exploring new areas

What is your opinion on the services provided in the

antenatal (AN) care?
____________________________________________
____________________________________________
151
 Semi-opened Questions

What is your occupation?

(1) Dependent
(2) Manual laborer
(3) Government employee
(4) Private employee
(5) Owned business
(6) Others (please specify) _____________
152
 Steps In Designing A Questionnaire

Step 1: Think for the objectives and variables

Step 2: Decide on the main section
Step 3: Write out the questions
Step 4: Sequencing the questions
Step 5: Compose a draft
Step 6: Take out any questions that are not essential
Step 7: Validate
Step 8: Pretest

153
 Points to consider

• Use simple language

• Avoid conjunctive items

• Avoid questions that have ambiguous words or phrases

• Start with the easy questions

• Ask all respondents each question in exactly the same way

• Do not overload your interview schedule

154
 Reliability and Validity of Tools
• Reliability refers to the degree to which scale produces consistent
results, when repeated measurements are made
• Is the consistency of measurement results across persons, occasions,
locations and instruments
• It related with Precision (Checked by calculating cronbach`s alpha)
• Validity represents the degree to which the scale measures what it is
expected to measure
• Validity implies the extent to which the research instrument measures,
what it is intended to measure.
• Related with Accuracy (Checked by research experts)
Qualitative Data Collection
Techniques
 FGD
Advantages

• Useful for exploring ideas and concepts.

• Can obtain in-depth information.

• Can examine how participants react to each other.

 FGD
Disadvantages
• Sometimes expensive.

• May be difficult to find a focus group moderator with good

facilitative and rapport building skills.
• May be dominated by one or two participants.
• May include large amount of extra or unnecessary information.

• Data analysis can be time consuming because of the open-ended

nature of the data.
 Interview

Advantages
• No group pressure
• Long time period encourages revealing new information

• Discussion is flexible and can explore additional related

issues
 Interview
Disadvantages
• Much more expensive than focus groups
• Do not get the same degree of client involvement
• Are physically fatiguing for the mediator
 Observation

A technique which involves systematically selecting, watching and

recording behavior and characteristics of living beings, objects or
phenomena

 Participant observation
The observer takes part in the situation he or she observes
 Non-participant observation
The observer watches the situation, openly or concealed,
but does not participate

163
 Observation

Advantages
• Provides deep understanding of the general setting
• Allows to observe whether people do what they say
they do
• Useful to capture a phenomenon and its specific
components in greater detail
 Observation
Disadvantages
• Time consuming and require good memory and
ability to take note
• Enormous data may be generated
• Observer may “go inborn”
• Expensive
 Differences Between Data Collection
Techniques And Data Collection Tools
Data collection techniques Data collection tools
Using available information Checklist; data compilation
forms

Observation Eyes and other senses,

pen/paper, watch, scales,
microscope, etc..

Interviewing Interview guide, checklist,

questionnaire, tape recorder

Administering written Questionnaire

questionnaire
 Data Quality Control Issues

Describe/provide:

– Training of data collectors/supervisor

– Field testing the research methods and tools

– Supervision data collection process

 Pilot study

– Pilot study – is the process of carrying out a preliminary or

initial study, going through the entire research procedure with
a small sample.
 Data Processing

Refers to:
– data checks and correction, and
– data entry into a computer
• The aim of this process is to produce a relatively clean
data set ready for analysis
 Data Analysis
• A plan for data analysis should include the following information:
– Identification of the analysis tasks to be completed
– Identification of the statistical software to be used for the
analysis
– A plan for quality control of the data analysis, including regular
checks which involve review and assessment of the quality of a
sample of the analysis already performed
 Definition of Ethics

• Ethics is a method, procedure, or perspective for

deciding how to act and analyzing complex problems and

issues.
 Why is research ethics important?
• Promote the values that are essential to collaborative
work, such as: trust, accountability, mutual respect, and
fairness.
• Promote a variety of other important moral and social
values,
– such as social responsibility,
– human rights (safeguard human from Atrocities (Ethical
Gaps) while conducting Research
– animal safety,
– compliance with the law, and
– health and safety.
 Basic Principles of Research ethics when dealing with human participants

Four basic ethical principles

– Respect for persons,
– beneficence and
– Non-maleficence
– justice
– Respect for communities
 Basic Principles of Research Ethics…
1. Respect for persons/autonomy

a) Respect for autonomy: those who are capable of deliberation

about their personal choices should be treated with respect for their

capacity for self-determination

b) Protection of persons with impaired or diminished autonomy:

Dependent or vulnerable persons who were incapable of protecting

his or her interests (fetuses, prisoners, mental problem and children).

 Basic Principles of Research ethics…
2. Beneficence: ethical obligation to maximize benefits and
to minimize harms.
3.Non-maleficence (do no harm).
4. Justice: refers to treat each person in accordance with
what is morally right and proper.
 Basic Principles of Research ethics…

5: Respect for communities

• Assist on the researcher an obligation to respect the

values and interests of the community in research and,

wherever possible, to protect the community from harm.

 Informed consent

• is a process by which a study participant voluntarily

confirms his or her willingness to participate in a
particular trial/study
• Essential elements of informed consent includes;
– Information,
– comprehension and
– autonomy of study participants and
– consent.
 Privacy and confidentiality

• Confidentiality is a key element of research ethics

• The researcher needs to know :

– which types of information can or cannot be shared

with a third part with/without the consent of the

study participant.
 Institution Review Board

• an independent Institution Review Board reviews and

approves so that unintended unethical lapses do not occur.

 Dissemination and Utilization of Results

• Briefly describe the dissemination plan

– Feedback to the community

– Feedback to local authorities

– Identify relevant agencies that need to be informed

– Scientific publication
– Presentation in meetings/conferences
• Briefly describe how the study results can be best
translated into application.
Work Plan & Budget
 Work Plan & Budget

At the end of this chapter you will be able to write

– A Work Plan and

– A Budget break down for your research work

 Work plan
• A WORK PLAN: Is a schedule, chart or graph that
summarizes the different components of a research project
and how they will be implemented in a coherent way
within a specific time span.
• Includes:

– Tasks to be performed
– When the task will be performed
– Who will perform the task (identify human resource needed
for each task)
– Number of staff needed to perform the task
 Work plan…..
• Work plan could be presented in different forms, such
as work schedule and GANTT chart.
• A GANTT chart is a planning tool that depicts
graphically the order in which various tasks must be
completed and the duration of each activity.
• The length of each task is shown by a bar that extends
over the number of days, weeks or months the task is
expected to take.
 Budget
• Why do we need to design a budget?
• A detailed budget will help you to identify which
resources are already locally available and which
additional resources may be required.
• The process of budget design will encourage you to
consider aspects of the work plan you have not thought
about before and will serve as a useful reminder of
activities planned, as your research gets underway.
 Budget…
• How should a budget be prepared?
– It is necessary to use the work plan as a starting point.
– Specify, for each activity in the work plan, what resources are
required.
– Determine for each resource needed the unit cost and the total cost.

– The budget for the fieldwork component of the work plan will
include funds for personnel, transport and supplies.
– Include a 5%-10% contingency fund
 Appendix

• Include in the appendices of your proposal any additional

information you think might be helpful to a proposal
reviewer. like
– Information Sheet
– Consent Form sheet
– Questionnaires or checklists used for data collection.
 Your Proposal

• Simple and clear

• Good statement of the problem: why do you want to
study?
• Relevant literature review

• Few objectives
• Clear and detailed methodological description
• Good work plan

• Reasonable budget
190
 Topic Selection

Background and statement of

References
the problem

The Research
Process
Budget Literature Review
Proposal

objectives
Work Plan

Methods and
Materials
01/31/2023 191
192
 Results, Discussion, Conclusion and
Recommendation
 At the end of this chapter you will be able to
• Write a research results, discussion , Conclusion and
Recommendation
 Components Of The Research Report
Preliminary Section: included before the body of the
research It includes
• Title page
• Signature page
• Acknowledgments
• Table of contents
• List of table
• List of figures
• List of abbreviations
• Abstract page
 Components Of The Research Report

The body of research

• Introduction

• Literature review
• Objectives

• Methods and Materials

• Results

• Discussion, conclusion and recommendations

• References

• Annex/es
 Abstracts

Brief description of major features of a study

– Single paragraph

– More detailed abstracts with specific headings

Abstract:
Back ground: health care workers are at greatest risk to being infected with COVID-19 in health care
facilities.
Objectives: To assess the level of practice and factors affecting practice towards COVID-19 among health
care workers in health care facility of West Guji Zone, Oromia region.
Methods: health facility based cross-sectional study design was carried out from December 1 st to 30th 2020
among health care providers in West Guji Zone. The simple random sampling technique was used in study
and total sample size for this study was 281. The data enter into Epi Data version 4.4.3.1 and SPSS Version 25
used for analysis. The descriptive statistics and logistic regression are needed. The cut point for statically
significance settled at p < 0.05.
Results: the response rate in this study was 97.8%. Of all study participants, 50.2%, 8.4%, and 6.5% had
traveling history, chronic illnesses, and contact with COVID-19 confirmed cases. Too much working, lack of
training, and shortage of protective equipment were reported by 54.5%, 50.9%, and 29.1% respectively.
About 36.4% and 38.2% of health care providers had poor level of knowledge and prevention practice
towards COVID19. Working at hospital (AOR= 0.156, 95% CI=0.033- 0.741), awareness of the action during
suggestive symptoms and signs of COVID-19 developed (AOR= 0.038, 95% CI=0.002-0.817), hand washing
(AOR= 0.043, 95% CI=0.008-0.238), not going to crowded place (AOR= 0.001, 95% CI=0.001-0.030),
applying physical distance (AOR=0.091,95% CI=0.041-0.579) adherence to triage and isolation protocol
(AOR=0.317,95%=0.039-0.577)and knowledge level of COVID-19 (AOR=2.378,95%CI=1.523-6.322) were
factors significantly associated with prevention practice of COVID-19.
Conclusion: in this study, the knowledge level and prevention practice gap was identified. Type of facility,
awareness of the action during suggestive symptoms and signs of COVID-19 developed, hands washing to
the standard, not going to crowded place, keeping physical distance, adherence to triage and isolation protocol
and having good level of knowledge about COVID-19 were factors associated with good prevention
practices. Adequate supply of personal protectivem aterials; provision of continuous on-job training and
guideline for prevention of COVID-19 must be given to all health care facilities.
 Research Report

Introduction • The same with

Literature review proposal except the

Objectives Tenses used

Methods
 Result
• Findings should be presented
• Text,tables and graphs could be used (should be well
titled and captioned).
• Graphs should clarify and not complicate, and care
should be taken that they do not mislead.
• If appropriate statistical tests are used, the results should
be included. P-values alone are not very helpful.
Confidence intervals and the type of tests used should be
indicated.
 Discussion

Purpose → to interpret your results & justify your interpretation

• The discussion is considered the heart of the paper and usually

requires several writing attempts.

• Discussion should be kept as short as possible while clearly and fully

stating, supporting, explaining, and defending your answers and

discussing other important and directly relevant issues.

 Discussion cont...
• Do not present any new data that were not shown in the result
section
• Organize the Discussion from the specific to the general: your
findings to the literature, to theory, to practice.
• Address all the results relating to the questions, regardless of
whether or not the findings were statistically significant
• Discuss any unexpected findings

• Write the limitation and strength of your study

 Conclusion
• A conclusion is where you summarize the paper’s findings and

generalize their importance

• Conclusions should be short, as they have been elaborately

discussed in the discussion section

• Strive for accuracy and originality in your conclusion.

• By the time you reach the end of your conclusion, there should be

no question in the reader's mind as to the validity of your claims

 Recommendations
• Recommendations are usually placed in roughly the same sequence
as the conclusion
• Recommendations may at the same time be summarized according to
the groups towards which they are directed
Example
– Policy makers
– Managers at district or lower level
– Staff who could implement the activities
– The community at large
– Researchers
 Research Utilization

• Research utilization – is essentially a process of using

research findings as a basis for practice.
• It encompasses dissemination of new scientific knowledge,
applying that knowledge in practice, & evaluating use of
research based practice with respect to staff, patient & cost
/resource utilization.
• Utilizing research to support practice is the ultimate aim of
research.
 Topic

Background and statement of

References
the problem

Discussion, The
conclusion and Research Literature Review
recommendations Report

objectives
Result

Methods and
Materials
01/31/2023 205
 Quiz(5%)
1-Whats Pilot study (1)

2-Why is research ethics important?(2)

2-Why do we need to design a budget?(2)

 Individual Assignment(10%)
1. Lists 3 research problems and prioritize by using a
rating scale (1=low, 2=medium; 3= high) applied to
seven criteria.

2. Select ONE Research Problem which has highest

score
3. Write a ‘clear research topic/title ’ for the selected
research problems