Chapter 4

Circuit Theorems

1
 Circuit Theorems

1 Motivation
2 Linearity Property
3 Superposition
4 Source Transformation
5 Thevenin’s Theorem
6 Norton’s Theorem
7 Maximum Power Transfer
2
 1 Motivation
If you are given the following circuit, are there any other
alternative(s) to determine the voltage across 2 resistor?

What are they? And how?

Can you work it out by inspection?
a circuit is analyzed without tampering with its original Configuration.

some theorems have been developed to simplify circuit analysis such

as Thevenin’s and Norton’s theorems.
 The theorems are applicable to linear circuits.
Discussion: Linearity, superposition & Source Transformation
3
 Introduction
• A major advantage of analyzing circuits using Kirchhoff's laws
as we did we can analyze a circuit without tampering with its
original configuration.
• A major disadvantage of this approach is that, for a large,
complex circuit, tedious computation is involved.
• The growth in areas of application of electric circuits has led to
an evolution from simple to complex circuits.
• To handle the complexity, engineers over the years have
developed some theorems to simplify circuit analysis.
• Such theorems include Thevenin’s and Norton’s theorems.
• Since these theorems are applicable to linear circuits.

4
 Introduction
A large Simplify
complex circuits circuit analysis

Circuit Theorems

‧Thevenin’s theorem ‧ Norton theorem

‧Circuit linearity ‧ Superposition
‧source transformation ‧ max. power transfer
Circuit Theorems 5
 Linear Property
• The Linear property is a combination of both
the homogeneity (scaling) property and the
additivity property.
• The homogeneity property requires that if
the input (also called the excitation) is
multiplied by a constant, then the output
(also called the response) is multiplied by
the same constant.
• For a resistor, for example, Ohm’s law
relates the input i to the output v.

6
 Linearity Property
It is the property of an element describing a linear relationship
between cause and effect.
A linear circuit is one whose output is linearly related (or
directly proportional) to its input.

Homogeneity (scaling) property

v=iR → kv=kiR

Additive property

v1 = i1 R and v2 = i2 R

→ v = (i1 + i2) R = v1 + v2 7
 Linearity Property
Homogeneity property (Scaling)
i  v  iR
ki  kv  kiR

Additivity property
i1  v1  i1 R
i2  v2  i2 R
i1  i2  (i1  i2 ) R  i1 R  i2 R  v1  v2
Circuit Theorems 8
• A linear circuit is one whose output is
linearly related (or directly
proportional) to its input
i
• Fig. 4.1

V0
I0

Circuit Theorems 9
• Linear circuit consist of
– linear elements vs  10V  i  2A
– linear dependent sources vs  1V  i  0.2A
– independent sources vs  5mV  i 1mA
• v 2
2
p i R  : nonlinear
R
p = i 2R = v2/R (making it a quadratic function rather than a linear one)
The relationship between power and voltage (or current) is nonlinear.
Therefore, the theorems covered in this chapter are not applicable to power

Circuit Theorems 10
For the circuit find io when vs = 12 V and vs = 24 V

11
Use linearity to determine io in the circuit

If Io = 1, the voltage across the 6Ω resistor is 6V so that the current through the 3Ω
resistor is 2A.

12
For the circuit in Fig. 4.73, assume vo = 1 V, and use linearity to find the actual value of vo.

13
 Linearity Property
Example 1
By assume Io = 1 A, use linearity to find the actual value of Io in the
circuit shown below.

answer Io = 3A 14
15
 Superposition
• If a circuit has two or more independent sources,
one way to determine the value of a specific
variable (voltage or current) is to use nodal or
mesh analysis as in Chapter 3.
• Another way is to determine the contribution of
each independent source to the variable and then
add them up.
• The latter approach is known as the superposition.
• The idea of superposition rests(recreation) on the
linearity property.

16
4.3 Superposition Theorem (1)
It states that the voltage across (or current
through) an element in a linear circuit is the
algebraic sum of the voltage across (or currents
through) that element due to Each independent
source acting alone.

The principle of superposition helps us to analyze

a linear circuit with more than one independent
source by calculating the contribution of each
independent source separately.

17
4.3 Superposition Theorem (2)
We consider the effects of 8A and 20V one
by one, then add the two effects together
for final vo.

18
4.3 Superposition Theorem (3)
Steps to apply superposition principle

1. Turn off all independent sources except one

source. Find the output (voltage or current)
due to that active source using nodal or
mesh analysis.

2. Repeat step 1 for each of the other independent

sources.

3. Find the total contribution by adding

algebraically all the contributions due to the
independent sources. 19
4.3 Superposition Theorem (4)
Two things have to be keep in mind:

1. When we say turn off all other independent sources:

 Independent voltage sources are replaced by 0 V (short
circuit) and
 Independent current sources are replaced by 0 A (open
circuit).

2. Dependent sources are left intact because they are controlled

by circuit variables.
• Superposition involves more work but simpler circuits.
• Superposition is not applicable to the effect on power.

20
4.3 Superposition Theorem (5)
Example 2

Use the superposition theorem to find

v in the circuit shown below.

3A is discarded
by open-circuit

6V is discarded
by short-circuit

answer v = 10V 21
22
 4.3 Superposition Theorem (6)
Example 3

Use superposition to find vx in

the circuit below.

2A is discarded by
open-circuit 10V is discarded
Dependant source
by open-circuit
keep unchanged
20  v1 20  v2

+ 4 0.1v1
10 V  2A
4 0.1v2

(a) (b)
23
*Refer to in-class illustration, text book, answer Vx = 12.5V
24
 Example 4.4
• Find I0 in the circuit using superposition.

Circuit Theorems 25
26
27
 Source Transformation (1)

• An equivalent circuit is one whose v-i

characteristics are identical with the
original circuit.
• It is the process of replacing a voltage
source vS in series with a resistor R by a
current source iS in parallel with a resistor
R, or vice versa.

28
Source Transformation

29
Source Transformation

30
 Source Transformation (3)
Example 4

Find io in the circuit shown below using source transformation.

Answer io = 1.78A 31
Source Transformation

32
Simplification
10/7 + 21/2
___________
10/7 +7

= 15/59/7
= 15 * 7/59 = 105/59
= 1.779 round 1.78 A

33
 Example 4.6
• Use source transformation to find vo
in the circuit in Fig 4.17.

Circuit Theorems 34
Source Transformation

35
4.5 Thevenin’s Theorem (1)

36
Thevenin’s theorem states that any two output terminals ( A & B )
of an active linear network containing independent sources (it includes
voltage and current sources) can be replaced by a simple voltage source
of magnitude Vth in series with a single resistor Rth where Rth is the
equivalent resistance of the network when looking from the output
terminals A & B with all sources (voltage and current) removed and
replaced by their internal resistances and the magnitude of Vth is equal to
the open circuit voltage across the A & B terminals.

37
Simple Steps to Analyze Electric Circuit through Thevenin’s
Theorem
1. Open the load resistor.
2. Calculate / measure the Open Circuit Voltage. This is the Thevenin
Voltage (VTH).
3. Open Current Sources and Short Voltage Sources.
4. Calculate /measure the Open Circuit Resistance. This is the
Thevenin Resistance (RTH).
5. Now, Redraw the circuit with measured open circuit Voltage (VTH)
in Step (2) as voltage Source and measured open circuit resistance
(RTH) in step (4) as a series resistance and connect the load resistor
which we had removed in Step (1). This is the Equivalent Thevenin
Circuit of that Linear Electric Network or Complex circuit which had to
be simplified and analyzed by Thevenin’s Theorem. You have done.
6. Now find the Total current flowing through Load resistor by using
the Ohm’s Law IT= VTH/ (RTH + RL).
Ex: Find VTH, RTH and the load current flowing through and load voltage
across the load resistor in fig (1) by using Thevenin’s Theorem

38
Step 1. Open the 5kΩ load resistor

Fig.2
Step 2.
Calculate / measure the Open Circuit Voltage. This is the Thevenin Voltage (VTH). We have
already removed the load resistor from figure 1, so the circuit became an open circuit as
shown in fig 2. Now we have to calculate the Thevenin’s Voltage. Since 3mA Current flows in
both 12kΩ and 4kΩ resistors as this is a series circuit because current will not flow in the
8kΩ resistor as it is open. So 12V (3mA x 4kΩ) will appear across the 4kΩ resistor. We also
know that current is not flowing through the 8kΩ resistor as it is open circuit, but the 8kΩ
resistor is in parallel with 4k resistor. So the same voltage (i.e. 12V) will appear across the
8kΩ resistor as 4kΩ resistor. Therefore 12V will appear across the AB terminals. So,
VTH = 12V

39
 Step 3. Open Current Sources and Short
Voltage Sources. Fig (4)

Step 4. Calculate /measure the Open Circuit Resistance. This is the Thevenin Resistance (RTH)We
have Reduced the 48V DC source to zero is equivalent to replace it with a short in step (3),as shown in
figure (3) We can see that 8kΩ resistor is in series with a
parallel connection of 4kΩ resistor and 12k Ω resistor.
i.e.: 8kΩ + (4k Ω || 12kΩ) ….. (|| = in parallel with)
RTH = 8kΩ + [(4kΩ x 12kΩ) / (4kΩ + 12kΩ)]
RTH = 8kΩ + 3kΩ
RTH = 11kΩ

Step 5. Connect the RTHin series with Voltage Source VTH and
re-connect the load resistor. This is shown in fig (6) i.e. Thevenin
circuit with load resistor. This the Thevenin’s equivalent circuit

Step 6.
Now apply the last step i.e Ohm’s law . calculate the
total load current & load voltage as shown in fig 6.
IL = VTH/ (RTH + RL)= 12V / (11kΩ + 5kΩ) → =
12/16kΩ IL= 0.75mA
And VL = ILx RL= 0.75mA x 5kΩ VL= 3.75V

40
 4.5 Thevenin’s Theorem (2)
Example 5
6 6
Using Thevenin’s theorem,
find the equivalent circuit to
4
the left of the terminals in RTh

the circuit shown below.

Hence find i. (a)

6

+
2A 6 4 VTh
2A


(b)

41
answer VTH = 6V, RTH = 3, i = 1.5A
42
 4.5 Thevenin’s Theorem (3)
5 Ix 3 a
Example 6
+
i2
Find the Thevenin equivalent 6V
+
 i1
VTh
4 
circuit of the circuit shown 1.5Ix
below to the left of the i1 i2

terminals. o
b
(a)

0.5Ix 3 Ix a
i

5 1.5Ix 4 + 1V


(b)
b
43
* answer VTH = 5.33V, RTH = 3
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46
47
 4.6 Norton’s Theorem (1)
It states that a linear two-terminal circuit
can be replaced by an equivalent circuit
of a current source IN in parallel with a
resistor RN,

Where

• IN is the short circuit current through

the terminals.

• RN is the input or equivalent resistance

at the terminals when the independent
sources are turned off.

The Thevenin’s and Norton equivalent circuits are

related by a source transformation. 48
49
Norton’s Theorem reduces linear, active circuits and complex
networks into a simple equivalent circuit.
The main difference between These two theorems
Thevenin’s theorem provides an equivalent voltage source and an
equivalent series resistance, while
Norton’s theorem provides an equivalent Current source and an
equivalent parallel resistance.
Simple Steps to Analyze Electric Circuit through
Norton’s Theorem
1. Short the load resistor
2. Calculate / measure the Short Circuit Current. This is the
Norton Current (IN)
3. Open Current Sources, Short Voltage Sources and Open
Load Resistor.
4. Calculate /measure the Open Circuit Resistance. This is the
Norton Resistance (RN)
5. Now, Redraw the circuit with measured short circuit Norton’s Equivalent Circuit
Current (IN) in Step (2) as current Source and measured
open circuit resistance (RN) in step (4) as a parallel
resistance and connect the load resistor which we had
removed in Step (3). This is the Equivalent Norton Circuit of
that Linear Electric Network or Complex circuit which had to
be simplified and analyzed. You have done.
6. Now find the Load current flowing through and Load
Voltage across Load Resistor by using
the Current divider rule. IL = IN / (RN / (RN+ RL)) 50
 Example: Find RN, IN, the current
flowing through and Load Voltage across
the load resistor in fig (1) by using
Norton’s Theorem.

Step 1. Short the 1.5Ω load resistor

as shown in (Fig 2).

Step 2.
Calculate / measure the Short Circuit Current.
This is the Norton Current (IN).
We have shorted the AB terminals to determine the Norton current,
IN.
The 6Ω and 3Ω are then in parallel and this parallel combination of 6Ω
and 3Ω are then in series with 2Ω.
So the Total Resistance of the circuit to the Source is:-
2Ω + (6Ω || 3Ω) ….. (|| = in parallel with).
RT = 2Ω + [(3Ω x 6Ω) / (3Ω + 6Ω)] → IT= 2Ω + 2Ω = 4Ω. RT = 4Ω
IT = V / RT IT = 12V / 4Ω= 3A..
Now we have to find ISC = IN… Apply CDR… (Current Divider Rule)…
ISC = IN = 3A x [(6Ω / (3Ω + 6Ω)] = 2A. ISC= IN = 2A.
Step 3.
Open Current Sources, Short Voltage Sources and Open Load Resistor.
51
Step 4.
Calculate /measure the Open Circuit Resistance. This is the Norton Resistance (RN)
We have Reduced the 12V DC source to zero is equivalent to replace it with a short
in step (3), as shown in figure (4) We can see that 3Ω resistor is in series with a
parallel combination of 6Ω resistor and 2Ω resistor. i.e.:
3Ω + (6Ω || 2Ω) ….. (|| = in parallel with) RN = 3Ω + [(6Ω x 2Ω) / (6Ω + 2Ω)]
RN = 3Ω + 1.5Ω RN = 4.5Ω

Step 5.
Connect the RN in Parallel with
Current Source INand re-connect the
load resistor. This is shown in fig (6)
i.e. Norton Equivalent circuit with
load resistor.

52
Step 6.
Now apply the last step i.e. calculate the load current through
and Load voltage across load resistor by Ohm’s Law as shown in
fig 7. Load Current through Load Resistor…
IL = IN x [RN / (RN+ RL)]=
2A x (4.5Ω /4.5Ω +1.5kΩ) → = 1.5 A
IL = 1. 5AAndLoad Voltage across Load Resistor… VL = IL
x RL= 1.5A x 1.5Ω = 2.25V

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55
56
4.7 Maximum Power Transfer (1)
If the entire circuit is replaced by
its Thevenin equivalent except for
the load, the power delivered to
the load is:
2
 VTh 
P  i 2 RL    RL
 RTh  RL 

For maximum power dissipated

in RL, Pmax, for a given RTH,
and VTH,
2
V
RL  RTH  Pmax  Th
4 RL The power transfer profile with different RL

57
58
4.7 Maximum Power Transfer (2)
Example 8

Determine the value of RL that will

draw the maximum power from
the rest of the circuit shown below.
Calculate the maximum power.

vx 4 vx 4
+  v0 + 

i
Fig. a
2 2
+
1 1
VTh => To determine RTH
+ 1V + 9V io
  
+ + Fig. b
 
3vx 3vx
=> To determine VTH

(a) (b)

*RL = 4.22, Pm = 2.901W 59

60
Summary

61
SUMMARY
1. A linear network consists of linear elements, linear dependent sources, and
linear independent sources.
2. Network theorems are used to reduce a complex circuit to a simpler one,
thereby making circuit analysis much simpler.
3. The superposition principle states that for a circuit having multiple
independent sources, the voltage across (or current through) an element is equal
to the algebraic sum of all the individual voltages (or currents) due to each
independent source acting one at a time.
4. Source transformation is a procedure for transforming a voltage source in
series with a resistor to a current source in parallel with a resistor, or vice versa.
5. Thevenin’s and Norton’s theorems allow us to isolate a portion of a network
while the remaining portion of the network is replaced by an equivalent network.
The Thevenin equivalent consists of a voltage source VTh in series with a resistor
RTh, while the Norton equivalent consists of a current source IN in parallel with a
resistor . The two theorems are related by source transformation.

6. For a given Thevenin equivalent circuit, maximum power transfer occurs

when RL = RTh, that is, when the load resistance is equal to the Thevenin
62
resistance.