UNIT THREE

3. Politics, Economy and Society in E & H to the End of the

Thirteenth century
 3.1. Emergence of States
 One important factor for the emergence of states was;- the
beginning of sedentary agriculture.
 Families preferred to live together forming larger communities for
better security and to help each other in hard works.
 Gradually, intermediaries (traders) also began to buy the products
of both to take to predetermined places or markets for exchange.
 States were formed mainly through the expansion of agriculture
that gave rise to class differentiation.
 Furthermore, the growth of trade facilitated the development of
states.
 Ethiopia and the Horn is one of the regions in Africa where early
state formation took place.
 From small beginnings, such states gradually developed into
powerful kingdoms and even empires with a well-demarcated
social structure.
 Geographical proximity to and control of the international water
bodies like:-
 Red Sea,
 Gulf of Aden and
 Indian Ocean along with their ports as well as rich interior
favored some of them to become stronger than their neighbors and
eventually dominated them.
 Ancient States
North and Northeast
 A. PUNT

Punt was the earliest recorded state in Ethiopia and the Horn.

The evidence on Punt comes from Egyptian hieroglyphic writings,

accompanied by vivid paintings that describe series of naval
expeditions, which the Egyptian Pharaohs sent to Punt.
 The best described and illustrated expedition was the one
undertaken by the order of the famous Egyptian Queen Hatshepsut
(1490-1468 B.C.), whose expedition is documented at her tomb in
Dier El Bahri.
 Hatshepsut presented different trade items to her god, Amun.
 It was because of the ritual importance of their exports that
Puntites were also known as Khebis of the Ta Netjeru (divine or
ghosts land).
 Iron, bronze, asses, foxes; cattle, animal’s fur, dying and
medicinal plants were also exported from Punt to Egypt.
 In return, axes, daggers, swords, knives, sickles, clothes,
bracelets, necklaces, beads and other trinkets were imported from
Egypt to Punt. Scholars have not reached agreement as to the
exact location of Punt.
B. Da’amat and Other Cultural Centers in Northern Ethiopia 7
and Eritrea
 The state known as Da’amat had a center a little to the south of
Aksum.
 Inscription of the king of Da’amat tentatively dated to the fifth
century BC shows that he used politico-religious title known as
Mukarib.
 Various gods and goddesses like Almouqah (principal god), Astarr
(Venus god), Na’uran (light god), Shamsi (sun god), and Sin
(moon god)
 were worshipped in the domain of the Da’amat state and other
northern Ethiopian pre-Aksumite cultural centers.
 There were similar practices in South Arabia at the time.
 There were a number of cultural centers in northern Ethiopia.

 The major ones are:

 Yeha: is located 30 kms to the northeast of Aksum and was the

oldest of these centers.
 It probably emerged around 1, 000 BC as a small emporium where
South Arabian merchants and their agents bought and stored ivory,
rhinoceros horn and other commodities coming from the interior.
 Hawulti Melazo: is situated to southeast of Aksum.

 Addi-Seglemeni: is located at 10kms southwest of Aksum, from

where a stone slab is found and the oldest Ethiopian monumental
inscription is discovered.
B. The Aksumite State
 The nucleus of the Aksumite state was formed around 200-100 B.C.
 Initially, its power was limited to a relatively small area comprising
the town of Aksum and its environs.
•Gradually, however, it expanded to include large territories in all
directions.
• In its heyday, Aksumite territories extended from the Red Sea coast
in the East to the Western edge of Ethiopian plateau overlooking the
vast Nile Valley in the west and from the northern most corner of
Eritrea and possibly as far south as northern parts of Shewa.
 According to Periplus of Erithrean Sea, Adulis on the western
coast of the Red Sea was the major port of Aksum.
 The document also mentioned ports of Aden (Eudaemon) Gulf
like Avalites (Zayla) and Malao (Berbera), and Indian Ocean
Benadir Coasts like Serapion (Moqadishu), Nicon (Brava) and
Merca.
 Zoscales (c. 76-89), the then king of Aksum, used to speak the
Greek language, the Lingua Franca of Greco-Roman world.
 Aksum also had relations with Ceylon (Sri Lanka) and Laodicea
(Asia Minor).
 The ADULIS inscription written in Greek about an unknown king,
which eventually was published in Cosmas Indicopleustes’ book,
the Christian Topography,
 describes commercial activities of the Red Sea areas.

It also mentions the internal long distance trade between Aksum

and a distant region called Sasu, most probably in Beni Shangul and
the adjoining lands beyond the Blue Nile.
 A big caravan made up of close to five hundred merchants some of
them special agents of the kings of Aksum would take to Sasu cattle,
lumps of salt (probably salt blocks) and iron to exchange for gold.
 Yet, as they did not speak each other’s language, and did not even
trust to be near to each other to bargain through signs and gestures.
This was a good example of silent trade.
 Aksumite kings had extensive contacts with the outside world
notably with the South Arabian region, leading to exchange of
ideas, material and spiritual culture.
 Sometimes such contacts involved conflicts between the two
regions
 From the third to the seventh centuries, Aksumite kings like
Aphilas, Endybis, Wazeba, Ezana, Ousanas II, etc.
 minted and issued different kinds of coins in gold, silver and bronze
for both overseas and local transactions.
• Aksum was one of the four great powers of the ancient world
along with Roman Empire, Persia and China.
•It was a major naval and trading power from the first to the seventh
centuries.
 Aksumite ships were the main means of transporting goods.

• Aksum was the only one with sufficient sources of timber for ship
building and in those days, the technology for it existed in Adulis.
•Aksum had a large fleet of ships, which was used not only for trade
but also for its wars across the Red Sea.
 Kaleb (r. 500-535) expanded overseas territories of Aksum beyond
Himyar and Saba, but the local prince Dhu-Nuwas was converted to
Judaism, marched to Zafar and Nagran, and killed many Christians.
 Byzantine Vasaliev Justinian (r. 527-565) with sanctification of
Patriarch Timit III (518-538) provided Kaleb with a number of ships
to transport armies led by Julianos and Nonossus against Dhu
Nuwas.
 Dhu Nuwas was defeated and Kaleb appointed Abraha as governor
of Arabia that continued until 570 A. D.
 Kaleb was succeeded by his son Gabra Masqal (535-548) who built
a church at Zur Amba in Gayint.
 It was during Gabra Maskal that Yared developed Ethiopian
Orthodox Church liturgical songs and hymns
 The Aksumite state begun to decline since the late seventh century
because of internal and external challenges.
 Environmental degradation, decline in agricultural productivity and
possibly plague infestation started to weaken it.
 With the destruction of the port of Adulis by the Arabs around 702,
the international lifeline of the state was cut.
 The whole network of Aksumite international trade came under the
control of the rising and expanding Arab Muslims, isolating the
Aksum state from its old commercial and diplomatic partners.
 Consequently, the Aksumite state declined economically.

 This led to the decline of its political and military power not only
on the Red Sea coast but also in its interior provinces, where
Aksumite hegemony was challenged by local rebellions.
 The recurring rebellions of the Beja, the Agaw and Queen Bani al
Hamwiyah (Yodit) finally sealed the collapse of the Aksumite
state.
 However, Aksum had civilization a profound impact upon the
peoples of the Horn of Africa and beyond, and on its successors i.e.
the Zagwe, ‘Solomonic Dynasty’, the Gondarine period etc.
 Some of its achievements include Sub-Saharan Africa’s only
surviving indigenous script and calendar as well as EOC hymns and
chants, paintings etc; diversified ceramic and lithic tools, ivory
curving, and urbanization and sophisticated building traditions
(palaces, stele, rock-hewn churches…)
 It also developed complex administrative and governance system,
and agricultural system including irrigation etc.
 B. Zagwe Dynasty
 After its decline, the center of Aksumite state shifted southwards to
Kubar rural highland in the territory of the Agaw.
 This apparently gave Agaw elites the opportunity to take part in
Aksumite state structure serving as soldiers and functionaries for at
least four centuries.
 The Agaw prince Merra Teklehaimanot married Masobe Worq, the
daughter of the last Aksumite king Dil Na'od.
 Later he overthrew his father-in-law and took control of power. The
Zagwe Dynasty is believed to have ruled from c. 1150 to 1270.
 The Zagwe Dynasty made its center in Bugna District within Wag
and Lasta, more exactly at Adafa near Roha (Lalibela).
 The Agaw maintained the ancient Aksumite traditions almost
intact.
 Zagwe rulers renewed cultural and trade contact with eastern
Mediterranean region Furthermore, the Zagwe period was a
golden age in Ethiopia's paintings and the translation of some
religious works from Arabic into Ge'ez.
 Zagwe rulers are also best known for the construction of cave,
semi-hewn and monolithic churches:
1. Cave: with some decoration inside, almost similar with natural
cave, eg. Bete-Mesqel.

2. Semi-hewn: this and the monolithic churches that have become

UNESCO world heritage are unique in constructions.
 They are not totally separated from the surrounding rock.

 Their roofs or walls are still attached to the rock, eg. Bete Denagil,
Bete Debresina/Mikael, Bete Golgota, Bete Merqoriwos, Bete
Gabri’el-Rufa’el and Bete Abba Libanos.

3. Monolithic: with detailed decoration in the interior and exterior

parts.
 They are completely separated (carved out) from surrounding rock,
eg. Bete Amanuel, Bete Giyorgis, Bete Mariyam and Bete
Medhanialem.
Among the eleven churches of Lalibela, Bete Medhanelem is the
largest of all and Bete Giyorgis is said to be the most finely built in the
shape of the Cross.
Lalibela wanted to establish the second Jerusalem, and mitigate or
even avoid difficulties, which Ethiopian Christians encountered in
their journey to the Holy Lands.
This was done by constructing churches based on the model of Holy
Lands in Israel.
 The Zagwe Dynasty came to end due to internal problems of royal

succession and oppositions from groups claiming descent from the

ancient rulers of Aksum.

 The latter considered Zagwe kings “illegitimate rulers” based on

the legend of the Queen of Sheba.

 The legend was in turn based on a book known as Kebra-Negest

(Glory of Kings) that was translated from Coptic to Arabic and

then into Ge’ez.

 Based on the legend, the power claimants contend that

“Solomonic” Dynasty ruled the Aksumite state until its power was

“usurped” by the Zagwes.

 Yekuno-Amlak (r. 1270-1285), who claimed decent from the last

Aksumite king Dilna’od,

 organized his forces with the assistance of the ecclesiastical

hierarchy and engaged the last king of Zagwe, Yetbarek in battle.

 Yetbarek was killed in Gaynt and Yekuno-Amlak took the state

power proclaiming the “restoration” of “Solomonic” Dynasty

 3.2.2. East, Central, Southern, and Western States

3.2.2.1. Bizamo, Damot, Enarya and Gafat

A. Bizamo: was a kingdom located on the southern bend of Abay

River just opposite to the present districts of Gojjam and around
the current Wambara area.
 It was founded in the eighth century and had early connections with
Damot.

B. Damot: was a strong kingdom that expanded its territories into

most of the lands the south of Abay and north of Lake Turkana as well
as west of Awash and east of Didessa.
 Motalami was a prominent king of Damot in the thirteenth century.

A. Enarya: was a kingdom in the Gibe region in southwestern

Ethiopia. The royal clan was Hinnare Bushasho (Hinnario
Busaso).
 The real power rested with Mikretcho (council) including Awa-
rasha (king's spokesperson) and Atche-rasha (royal treasurer).
 The kings had residences in Yadare and Gowi.

A. Gafat: historically, the territory of Gafat lies south of Abay (Blue

Nile) River adjoining Damot on the south western periphery of the
Christian Kingdom.
 3.2.2.2. Muslim Sultanates

A. Shewa: Makhzumi Khalid ibn al-Walid, who claimed decent from

Meca, set up the Makhzumite Sultanate in 896 A. D (283 A.H.) on
northeastern foothill of Shewa.

B. B. Fatagar: was founded around Minjar, Shenkora and Ada’a in

the eleventh century.

C. Dawaro: located south of Fatagar between upper waters of Awash

and Wabi-Shebelle extending to Charchar in Northeast and Gindhir
in Southeast. Dawaro had a currency called hakuna for transaction.

D. Bali: was an extensive kingdom occupying high plateau,

separating basins of Shebelle and Rift valley Lakes.
A. It was separated from Dawaro by the Wabi-Shebelle River and
extended southwards to the Gannale Dirre River. Bali was one of
the largest of Ethiopia’s Muslim provinces.

B. Ifat: It was established by Umar Walasma, who claimed descent

from Hashamite clan and said to have come from Arabia between
1271 and 1285.
 External Contacts
 Ethiopia and the Horn had contacts with Egypt since at least 3,000
B. C.
 These relations may be the region’s earliest contacts with the
Mediterranean world or the Greco-Roman World.
 It had very close relations with all commercially active South
Arabian Kingdoms starting sometimes before 1,000 B.C.
 The introduction of Christianity to Aksum established a new pattern
of relation between the region and Egypt.
Until the introduction of Islam into Egypt and the general reduction
of the Christians into minority, relations between the two were fairly
smooth and friendly.
Following the introduction of Christianity, Aksum established close
relationship with the East Roman or Byzantine Empire with which it
shared common commercial interest in the Red Sea area against their
rival Persians.
Yet, in the seven century, this relation became complicated and
began to deteriorate.
The rapid expansion of the Muslim Arabs through the Near and
Middle East, North Africa and the Nile valley led to the decline of
Aksumite land routes and shipping lines.
Until the introduction of Islam into Egypt and the general reduction of
the Christians into minority, relations between the two were fairly smooth
and friendly.
Following the introduction of Christianity, Aksum established close
relationship with the East Roman or Byzantine Empire with which it
shared common commercial interest in the Red Sea area against their
rival Persians.
Yet, in the 7th, this relation became complicated and began to deteriorate.

The rapid expansion of the Muslim Arabs through the Near and
Middle East, North Africa and the Nile valley led to the decline of
Aksumite land routes and shipping lines.
Successive Egyptian Muslim rulers began to use the
consecration and sending of a bishop as an instrument to further
their own foreign policy objectives and to squeeze concessions
from Ethiopian Christian rulers, who reacted by threatening to
divert the Nile.
The coming to power of the Mamluk was followed by the
reciprocal persecution of religious minorities.
•Moreover, the Mamluk presented a barrier to the contacts between
Christian Ethiopia and European states.
•However, the tradition to visit Jerusalem and other holy places in
the Middle East had begun at the end of the first millennium AD.
In order to reach the places, Ethiopian Christian pilgrims used the
land route to Egypt.
From Cairo, again they used the land route to the Holy land.
Consequently, there were considerable numbers of Ethiopian
Christian communities found in different regions, in Egyptian
monasteries, in the holy places of Palestine and Armenia, and in
Italian city-states in subsequent centuries.
The communities living in different parts of the world served as an
important link or bridge between Ethiopian Christian Kingdom and
Europe.
From the information, the Europeans began to consider Ethiopian
Christian Kingdom as a very powerful and wealthy state existing in
the Horn of Africa.
Consequently, they wanted to use this imaginary strong Christian
power in their struggle against the Muslim powers in the Holy land.
Around the middle of the 12th century, a myth about a very rich and
powerful Christian ruler known as Prester John began to circulate in
Europe.
The legend was developed when the balance of the crusade war
fought over Jerusalem between the Christians of Europe and the
Muslims of the Middle East was in favor of the latter.
In 1165, a letter addressed to European kings, thought to be sent by
the Prester John appeared in Europe mentioning about the enormous
power of the Prester John.
The geographical location of the country of Prester John was not
known to Europe for over a century.
However, the Europeans began to regard Ethiopian Christian
Kingdom as the land of Prester John since the only Christian
kingdom between the Red Sea and the Indian sub-continent was the
Ethiopian Christian Kingdom.
Then, they began to search for the location of the Kingdom and to
make an alliance with it.
 Economic Formations

A. Agriculture and Land Tenure System

The most ancient system of land holding which survived in many
parts of Ethiopia and the Horn is the communal land tenure system.
Communal right to land is a group right.

 Rist is a kind of communal birthright to land by members of the

families and clans whose ancestors had settled and lived in the area
over long periods.
 It is inherited from generation to generation in accordance to
customary law.
 The rist owners were known as bale-rist. Yet, they paid tributes to
the state and all land belonged to the state theoretically.
generation in accordance to customary law.

• Gult is a right to levy tribute on rist owners’ produce. The tribute

collected by bale-gults, partly allotted for their own up keep and
the rest were sent to the imperial center.
• Gult right that became hereditary was called Riste-Gult as
prominent well-placed officials used to transfer their position to
their offspring
 Handicraft
 Indigenous handcraft technology had existed since the ancient
period.
 The social, economic and political conditions of ancient states had
allowed the emergence of artisans in various fields with diverse
forms and applications
 Including:- metal work, pottery, tannery, carpentry, masonry,
weaving, jewelry, basketry and others.
 However, except the carpenters and masons in some cases, the
artisans were mostly despised and marginalized.
 The ruling classes mostly spent their accumulated wealth on
imported luxurious items rather than the domestic technology.
 The general public attitude towards artisans was not at all
encouraging.
 Consequently, the locally produced agricultural implements and
house furniture did not show any significant improvement and
sophistication.
 Trade
 Trade was another important economic activity of ancient states
that obtained considerable income from both internal and
international trade.
 The regular flow of trade was so vital to the states in that one of
their major concerns was to protect the trade routes and make them
safe from robbers
 Socio-cultural Achievements

A. Architecture
As the states expanded, architecture also began to flourish and one
of the unique architectural technologies was the engraving of stele
around the third century AD.
There were totally fifty eight steles in and around Aksum that can
be grouped into well made and decorated, half completed and
megaliths (not hewn).
The longest one of these stele measures 33meters heights (the first
in the world).
It bears pre-Christian symbols, which are a disc and a crescent
(half moon) at the top.
 The second longest obelisk measures 24 meters height, and the
third longest stele measures 21 meters.
The Zagwe churches are regarded as some of the finest
architecture of artistic achievements of the Christian world and that
is why they were registered by UNESCO as part of world cultural
heritage in 1978, two years before that of the Aksumite stele.
 Writing System
The Sabean language had an alphabet with boustrophedon writing
type that is paleographical writing from left to right and right to left
alternatively.
The earliest Sabean inscriptions in Eritrea and Ethiopia date to the
ninth century BC. One peculiar feature of Sabean inscriptions is
absence of vowels.
The words are written in consonants. For instance, Da’amat was
inscribed as D’mt, while its successive kings are written as RDM,
RBH and LMN using title, mlkn.
By the first century AD, "Geʽez alphabet" arose, an abjad (26
consonant letters only) written left-to-right with letters identical to
the first-order forms of modern vocalized alphabet.
 Though the first completely vocalized texts known are inscriptions
by Ezana (who left trilingual inscriptions in Greek, Sabean and
Ge'ez) c. 330 AD, vocalized letters predate him by some years, as
vocalized letter exists in Wazeba’s coin some 30 or so years
before.
The process was developed under the influence of Christian
scripture by adding vocalic diacritics for vowels, u, i, a, e, ə, o, to
the consonantal letters in a recognizable but slightly irregular way.
 Calendar
•Calendars were developed and adopted among various peoples of
Ethiopia and the Horn.
•Oromo calendar has been based on astronomical observations of
moon in conjunction with seven or eight particular stars or group of
stars called Urjii Dhahaa (guiding stars) and Bakkalcha (morning
star).
• There are 29.5 dates in a month and 354 days in 12 months of a
year.
Pillars (dated 300 B.C.), which were discovered in northwestern
Kenya from 1978-86 by Archaeologists Lynch, Robbins and Doyl
have suggested to represent site used to develop Oromo calendar.
 In connection with this, c. 900 A. D. Oromo person Waqlim is said
to have taken art of shaping phallic bowls to Zimbabwe.

The Sidama calendar rotates following movements of stars with

13 months a year, 12 of which are divided equally into 28 days while
the thirteenth month has 29 days.
The Sidama week has only 4 days (Dikko, Dela, Qawado and
Qawalanka) and hence each month has 7 weeks.
•Nominated Mote (King) is presented to Fiche Chambalala, New Year

ritual, for Qetela or popular demonstration.

Ethiopic solar calendar has 12 months of 30 days plus 5 or 6 (is

added every 4 years) Epagomenal days, which comprise a thirteenth

month.

• A gap of 7–8 years between Ethiopic and Gregorian calendars results

from alternative calculation in determining date of Annunciation.

•Thus, the first day of the year, 1 Meskerem/Enkutatash is usually

September 11 (Gregorian).
The Muslim (Islamic) calendar is a lunar calendar consisting of

12 months in a year of 354 or 355 days.

• It employs the Hijra year of 622 AD, in which Mohammed and his

followers made flight from Mecca to Medina and established the first

Muslim community (ummah).

•Dates in this era are usually denoted AH (After Hijra, "in the year of

the Hijra"). Years prior to the Hijra are reckoned as BH ("Before the

Hijra").

•Other peoples like the Agaw, Halaba, Hadiya, Wolayta, Gedeo, the

Nilotes, etc have their own dating system.

 Numerals

•Numerals appeared in Ethiopia and the Horn at the beginning of

fourth century AD. Ge’ez uses numeral system comparable to the

Hebrew, Arabic and Greek numerals.

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