UNIT – I

UNDERSTANDING THE CURRICULUM

(Definition from Different View Points)

A. DEFINITIONS OF CURRICULUM
The concept of curriculum is sometimes
characterized as fragmentary, elusive and confusing.
 numerous definitions indicate dynamism that
connotes diverse interpretations of what
curriculum is all about.
 definitions are influenced by modes of thoughts,
pedagogies (science/profession of teaching),
political as well as cultural experiences.
 Some definitions include:
1. Traditional Points of View
 Early 20th C, “curriculum is a body of subjects or
SM prepared by teachers for students to learn.”
 Synonymous to “course of study” and
“syllabus”.
 “Permanent studies” where rules of grammar,
reading, rhetoric & logic and math for basic
education are emphasized (Robert M. Hutchins).
 Basic education - should emphasize 3Rs
College education - should be grounded on
liberal education.
Traditional Points of View, cont’d…
Arthur Bestor (essentialist), believes: school mission be
intellectual training– curriculum focus on fundamental
intellectual disciplines of grammar, literature and
writing, math, science, history & foreign language.
 leads to Joseph Schwab’s (leading curriculum theorist) view that
discipline is the sole source of curriculum.
 Phil. education system: curriculum is divided into chunks of
knowledge (courses/subject areas) in basic education (English,
Math Science, Soc Sci, etc.).
 In College, discipline may include: humanities, sciences,
languages, and many more.
 To Phenix, curriculum should consist entirely of knowledge
which comes from various disciplines.
Traditional Points of View, cont’d…
Academic discipline became the view of what curriculum is after the
cold war and the race to space.
Schwab coined: discipline as a ruling doctrine for curriculum
development.
Curriculum should consist only of knowledge which comes from
disciplines-- the sole source.
can be viewed as FS–made up of foundations (philosophical, historical,
psychological, social); domains of knowledge as well as its research
theories and principles.
taken as scholarly & theoretical–concerned with broad historical,
philosophical, social issues and academics.
Most traditional ideas view curriculum as written documents or a
plan of action in accomplishing goals.
2. Progressive Points of View
Curriculum – if written materials are actualized by the
learner.
 total learning experiences of individual
(John Dewey’s definition of experience
and education).
Dewey believed: reflective thinking is a means that
unifies curricular elements.
 thought is not derived from action but tested
by application.
Caswell & Campbell: curriculum refers to “all
experiences children have under the guidance
of teachers.”
Progressive Points of View, cont’d…
Smith, Stanley & Shores: curriculum is “a sequence of
potential experiences set-up in schools for the
purpose of disciplining children and youth in
group ways of thinking and acting.”
Marsh & Willis: curriculum refers to all the experiences
in the classroom which are planned & enacted by
the teacher, and also learned by the students.
Points of View on Curriculum Development

From various definitions presented, it is clear that

curriculum is a dynamic process.
Development connotes changes which are
systematic (purposeful, planned
and progressive to produce positive
changes.
Change for the better – any alteration,
modification/improvement of existing condition.
B. MODELS OF CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT
1. Ralph Tyler Model (Tyler’s Rationale)- posited four
fundamental. questions/principles
in examining any school curriculum:
a) What educational purposes should the school seek to attain?
b) What educational experiences can be provided that are likely to attain
those purposes?
c) How can educational experiences be effectively organized?
d) How can we determine whether these purposes are being attained or not
Model shows four (4) prime considerations:
i) purpose of school,
ii) educational experiences related to purposes,
iii) organization of experiences, and
iv) evaluation of experiences
2. Taba’s Linear (Grassroot) Model
 Believed: teachers who teach/implement curriculum
should participate in developing the curriculum.
7-steps where teachers could have major inputs:
a) Diagnosis of learners’ needs & expectations of the
larger society.
b) Formulation of learning objectives
c) Selection of learning content
d) Organization of learning content
e) Selection of learning experiences
f) Organization of learning activities
g) Determination of what to evaluate & means of doing it.
Three Interacting Processes in Curriculum
Development

1. Planning –
2. Implementing –
3. Evaluation -
C. TYPES OF CURRICULUM OPERATING IN SCHOOLS
(Allan Glatthorn, 2000)
1) Recommended curriculum – proposed by scholars and professional
organizations.
 comprises most school curricula.
from national agency: (DepEd, CHED, DOST); and any professional
organization who has the stake in education (PAFTE, BIOTA, etc.).
2)Written curriculum – appears in school, district, division or country
documents.
documents, course of study/syllabi handed down to schools, districts,
divisions, departments/colleges for implementation.
mostly made by curriculum experts with participation of teachers.
pilot-tested or tried out in sample schools/population.
BEC, written LP of each classroom teacher made up of objectives &
planned activities.
 Types of Curriculum, cont’d…
(Allan Glatthorn, 2000)
3)Taught curriculum – what teachers implement/deliver in
classrooms and schools.
 different planned activities put into action in the classroom.
 varied activities implemented to arrive at the objectives/purposes of
written curriculum.
 used by learners with the guidance of teachers.
 varies according to learning and teaching styles.

4) Supported curriculum – resources (textbooks, computers,

AVMs which support & help in curriculum implementation.
 resources (textbooks, computers, AVMs that help curr. implementation.
 other than teacher, AVMs should support/help implement a written
curriculum.
 material resources (textbooks, computers, AVMs, lab equipment,
playgrounds, zoos & other facilities.
 should enable each learner to achieve real & life-long learning.
 Types of Curriculum, cont’d…
(Allan Glatthorn, 2000)
5. Assessed curriculum is that which is tested & evaluated.
 at the duration and end of teaching episodes, series of
evaluations are done by teachers to determine extent of teaching
or to tell if students are progressing.
 assessment tools (pencil-and-paper tests), authentic
instruments (portfolio) are utilized.

6) Learned – refers to learning outcomes achieved by

students.
 what students usually learned and what is measured, and
learning outcomes – results of tests & changes in behavior
(cognitive, affective, psychomotor).
 Types of Curriculum, cont’d…
(Allan Glatthorn, 2000)
7) Hidden curriculum – unintended curriculum, not
deliberately planned but may modify behavior or
influence learning outcomes.
 lots of hidden curricula transpired in school:
a) peer influence
b) school environment
c) physical condition
d) teacher-learner interaction
e) mood of the teachers
D. CURRICULUM FOUNDATIONS
Major (commonly accepted) Foundations of Curriculum

1. Philosophical Foundations
Philosophy -provides educators, teachers and
curriculum-makers with framework for planning,
implementing and evaluating curriculum in schools
 helps answer what schools are for, what courses are
important, how students should learn, and what
materials & methods should be used.
 provides starting point and will be used for succeeding
decision-making.
Educational philosophy . . .
... lays the strong foundation of any
curriculum.
 curriculum planner (specialist),
curriculum implementer (teacher),
school administrator (evaluator), whether
school-based or externally-based anchors
her/his decision-making process on a sound
philosophy.
Philosophy of curriculum planner, implementor
and evaluator reflects her/his…
1. life experiences
2. common beliefs
3. social background
4. economic background
5. educational background
John Dewey (1916) looks at “education as a way of life”, a lab in
which philosophy becomes concrete and tested.
Ralph Tyler – shows that philosophy is one of the 5 criteria in
selecting educational purposes shown in Fig. 1.
Tyler’s View of Philosophy in Relation to School Purposes

Suggestions from
Subject specialists

Studies Studies of
of Contemporary
Learners Life
School
Purposes

Use of
Use of
Psychology
Philosophy
of Learning
Educational Philosophies
Study each educational philosophy & match it to: aim of
education, role of education, focus in curriculum &
related curriculum trends (Ornstein & Hunkins, 2004).

1. Perennialism
Aim: educate rational person; cultivate intellect
Role: teachers help students think w/ reason- a Socratic
methods of oral exposition/recitation;
explicit/deliberate teaching traditional values.
Focus: classical subjects, literary analysis, curriculum is
constant.
Trends: use of great books; return to liberal arts.
Educational Philosophies, cont’d…
2. Essentialism

Aim: promote intellectual growth of individual and educate a

competent person.
Role: teacher is the sole authority in her/his
subject/specialization.
Focus: essential skills of 3R’s & essential subjects of English,
Science, History, Math & Foreign Language.
Trends: Excellence in education, back to basics and cultural
literacy.
Educational Philosophies, cont’d…
3. Progressivism
Aim: to promote democratic and social living.
Role: knowledge leads to growth and development of
life-long learners who actively learn by doing.
Focus: subjects are interdisciplinary, integrative and
interactive – it centered on students’ interest,
human problems and affairs.
Trends: school reforms, relevant and contextualized
curriculum, humanistic education.
Educational Philosophies, cont’d…
4. Reconstructionism
Aim: improve and reconstruct society- it is
“education for change.”
Role: teachers act as agents of change and reform in
various educational projects and research.
Focus: present and future trends; issues of national
and international interests.
Trends: equality of educational opportunities in
education, access to global education.
2. Historical Foundations
Curriculum is not an old field. Majority
scholars placed its beginning in 1918 with
publication of F. Bobbit’s book “The
Curriculum.”
Philippine education – traced back from various
foreign influences.
American educational system –greatest influence.
Historical perspective (Bobbit, 1676-1956 to Ralph
W. Tyler, 1902-94) is presented below:
1. Franklin Bobbit (1876-1956)
 presented curriculum as a science that
emphasizes on students’ need.
 curriculum prepares students for adult life.
 objectives with corresponding activities
should be grouped/sequenced – could only
be done if instructional activities and tasks
are clarified.
2. Werret Charters (1875-1952)
curriculum is a science.

 gives emphasis on students’ needs.

 listing of objectives and matching these
with corresponding activities ensures
that content/subject matter (SM) is
related to objectives.
 SM & activities are planned by teacher.
3. William Kilpatrick (1871-1965)
 curricula are purposeful activities w/c are
child-centered.
 purpose is child development and growth.
 introduced project method where teacher
and student plan the activities.
 curriculum develops social relationships
and small group instruction.
4. Harold Rugg (1886-1960)
 curriculum should develop the whole
child (child-centered).
 with statement of objectives and related
learning activities, curriculum should
produce outcomes.
 emphasized social studies.
 teacher plans curriculum in advance.
5. Hollis Caswell (1901-1989)
 sees curriculum as organized around
social functions of themes, organized
knowledge & learner’s interest.
 believes that curriculum is a set of
experiences.
 Subject matter is developed around
social functions & learners’ interests.
6. Ralph Tyler (1902-1994)
 one of the hallmarks of curriculum.
 believes that curriculum is a science and an extension
of school’s philosophy.
 based on student’s needs & interest.
 curriculum is always related to instruction
 SM is organized in terms of knowledge, skills and
values.
 process emphasizes problem-solving.
 curriculum aims to educate generalists and not
specialists.
Historical development …
 Curriculum shows different changes in
purposes, principles and content.
 Changes are influenced by educational,
philosophy, psychology and pedagogical
theories.
 implies: curriculum is ever-changing,
putting in knowledge and content from
many fields of disciplines.
3. Psychological Foundations
Psychology provides a basis for teaching-learning
process.
 unifies elements of learning process and
some questions which can be addressed
by psycho-foundations of education.
Questions relative to Psycho-Foundations of Curr:
1. How should curriculum be organized to enhance
learning?
2. What’s the optimum level of students’ participation in
learning various contents of curriculum.
Three Groups of Learning Theories:
1. Behaviorist Psychology
Behaviorism, dominated 20th C psychology,
includes:
a) Connectionism (Edward Thorndike)- influenced
Ralph Tyler & Hilda Taba, who are considered well-
known curricularists.
b) Classical Conditioning (Ivan Pavlov)
c) Operant Conditioning (B.F. Skinner)
d) Modeling & Observation theory (Albert Bandura)
Robert Gagne’s hierarchical learning or sets of
behavior & five learning outcomes became
classic examples.
Learning outcomes include:
1. Intellectual skills (knowing how) to categorize and use
symbols, forming concepts and problem solving;
2. Information (knowing what) knowledge about facts,
dates and names;
3. Cognitive strategies (learning skills);
4. Motor skills (hands-on or manipulative skills);
5. Attitudes, feelings and emotions learned thru
experiences (Gagne, 1987).
Learning outcomes overlap with domains
in the taxonomy of educational objectives:
cognitive, affective & psychomotor.

To the behaviorists, learning should be organized so

students can experience success in the process of
mastering subject-matter.
Method: introduced step-by-step (proper
sequencing) of task- - viewed by other educational
psychologist as simplistic and mechanical.
2. Cognitive Psychology
Basic questions asked:
a. How do learners store information?
b. How do they retrieve data/generate conclusions?
Cognitivists:
1) Jean Piaget (Cognitive Dev’t. Stages)
2) Lev Vgotsky (Social Constructivism)
3) Howard Gardner (Multiple Intelligences)
4) Felder & Silverman (Learning Styles)
5) Daniel Golema (Emotional Intelligences)
6) Etcetera (etc.)
3. Humanistic Psychology
Humanists are concerned with how learners can develop
their human potential.
 not recognized as school of thought by
traditional psychologists.
 viewed by observers as 3rd force learning
theory after behaviorism and cognitive
development.
 built on Gestalt psychology (learning can be
explained in terms of wholeness of the problem
and where environment is changing and learner
is continuously reorganizing perceptions).
Humanists include:
1. Abraham Maslow’s “theory of human needs” for self-
actualizing person.
2. Carl Rogers’ “non-directive lives”

To humanistic psychologists, curriculum is concerned with

process, not products; personal needs, not SM;
psychological meaning & environmental situations.

Summary: Psychology has great influence in curriculum.

 Learners are not machines - mind is not a computer.
 Humans (biological beings), affected by their biology & culture.
 Psycho-foundations help curriculum-makers in nurturing a more
advanced, more comprehensive and complete human learning.
4. Social Foundations
Schools exist within the social context.
Societal culture affects and shapes schools and
curricula.
 The way school buildings are structured, classrooms and
students are organized reflect cultural views & values of
society.
 Considering social foundations of curriculum:
schools (formal institutions that address more complex
and interrelated societies/world) are only one of the
many institutions educating the society. Home, family
and community likewise educate people in society.
Society (ever dynamic) is a source of very fast
changes difficult to cope with and to adjust to.
Schools are made to help to understand changes.
 conservative institutions lag behind when
they are supposed to be “agents of change”.
 to be relevant: curricula should address diversity,
knowledge explosion, school reforms and education for all.
 Relationship of curriculum & society should be mutual
and encompassing.
 Curricula should reflect/preserve society’s culture and
inspirations.
Society should imbibe (absorb) changes brought about by formal
institutions – the schools.
E. ELEMENTS/COMPONENTS OF CURRICULUM

1. Aims, goals, objectives- What is to be done?

2. Subject-matter/content - What SM to be
included?
3. Learning experiences – What instructional
strategies, resources and activities will be
employed?
4. Evaluation approaches – What methods and
instruments will be used to assess results of the
curriculum?
Aim - a purpose, an intention, or to direct
at an object.
Goal - distance in any given direction one
expects to go during a given period of time;
expresses a specific time element – what is
to be accomplished with a certain period
of time in the attainment of an objective.
Objective- an expression of the end
toward which efforts are directed-
implying direction/ movement.
Subject-matter/content – the matter dealt
with in a book, movie, discussion, or other
medium; something that is being discussed,
examined, or otherwise dealt with.
Learning experiences – knowledge/skills
acquired through being involved in or
exposed to something over a period of time.
Evaluation approaches– a method,
procedure or way of assessing/solving the
achievement of the students.
Component 1 – Curr. Aims, Goals & Objectives
Formal curriculum embedded in formal institutions
(schools) are established institutions run by gov’t. or private
sector.
Phil. educ’l. system composed of three levels.

Phil.Constitution‘87 mandates: all schools shall aim to:

a) inculcate patriotism and nationalism.
b) foster love of country.
c) promote respect for human rights.
d) appreciate role of nat’l. heroes in historical dev’t of country.
e) teach the rights and duties of citizenship.
f ) strengthen ethical and spiritual values.
g) develop moral character and personal discipline.
h) encourage critical and creative thinking.
Aims of Elementary Education (Ed. Act of 1982)
1) Provide knowledge and develop skills, attitudes,
values essential to personal dev’t. and necessary for
living in and contributing to a developing/changing
society;
2) Provide learning experiences which increase child’s
awareness of and responsiveness to society’s changes;
3) Promote and intensify knowledge, identification w/
and love for the nation and people to which he
belongs; and
4) Promote work experiences w/c develop orientation
to the world of work and prepare learner to engage in
honest and gainful work.
Aims of Secondary Education (Ed. Act of 1982)
1) Continue to promote the objectives of
the elem. education; and
2. Discover and enhance the different
aptitudes and interests of students in
order to equip them with skills for
productive endeavor and or to prepare
them for tertiary schooling.
 Aims of Tertiary Education
Tertiary education – college/university formal
educ. based on the curricula of different degrees
which aim to:
1) Provide general education programs which will promote
national identity, cultural consciousness, moral integrity and
spiritual vigor;
2) Train the nation’s manpower in the skills required for
national development;
3) Develop profession that will provide leadership for the
nation; and
4) Advance knowledge through research and apply new
knowledge for improving the quality of human life and
Constitution’s mandate: each school should be guided
by its VMGs. Curricula should also revolve around these.

Vision – clear concept of what an institution would

like to become in the future.
 provides focal point or unifying element
according to which school staff, faculty,
students perform individually/collectively.
 guiding post around which all educational
efforts including curriculum should be
directed.
 can be very ambitious but that is its
characteristics.
Examples of a School’s Vision
1) A model performing high school where
students are equipped with knowledge,
skills and strength of character to realize
their potential to the fullest.
2) Commits to the Exemplary Christian
Education for Life and responsive to the
needs of the total person and the world.
School’s mission statement…
1) spells out how it intends to carry out its vision.
2) targets to produce kind of persons students will
become after having been educated over a certain
period of time.

Examples of a School’s Mission:

a) To produce globally competitive lifelong learners.
b)Commits to total development of individuals for life
adjustment and to the uplift of the economic-ally
deprived but deserving students thru quality instruction,
updated facilities and curricula responsive to the needs
of the times.
 Vision-Mission - further translated into goals;
(broad statements/intents to be accomplished.
 data for sources of school goals may include:
learners, society and fund of knowledge.
Examples of school goals:
a) build a strong foundation of skills & concepts.
b) efficient and effective administration
responsive of the needs of the university and
community.
In curriculum, goals made simple and specific for the attainment of
each learner is called educational objectives (EOs). EOs is defined by
Benjamin Bloom & Robert Mager as:
1) Explicit formulations of the ways in which
students are expected to be changed by the
educative process, and
2) Intent communicated by statement describing
a proposed change in learners.
Objectives – direct change in behavior
– ultimate aim of learning.

 provide bases for selection of

learning content and learning
experiences.
 set criteria against learning
outcomes will be evaluated.
Three Big Domains of Objectives
(Bloom, et. al.)
1. Cognitive Domain (Bloom et al, 1956) – domain
of thought process.
2. Affective Domain (Krathwohl, 1964) – domain
of valuing, attitude/appreciation
3. Psychomotor Domain (Simpson, 1972) –
domain of the use of psychomotor attributes.
Cognitive Domain (Bloom, et. al.,1956)
- domain of thought process.
a. Knowledge– recall, remembering prior learned materials-
facts, concepts, theories, principles(lowest cognitive level).
b. Comprehension – ability to grasp meaning of material
(lowest form of understanding).
c. Application – ability to use learned material in new and
concrete situation.
d. Analysis –ability to breakdown material into component
parts so that its organizational structure may be understood
e. Synthesis–ability to put parts together to form new whole
f. Evaluation – ability to pass judgment on something
based on given criteria.
2. Affective Domain (Krathwohl, 1964) –
domain of valuing, attitude & appreciation
a. Receiving – students’ willingness to pay attention to
particular event, stimuli/classroom activities.
b. Responding – active participation on the part of
students.
c. Valuing – concerned with worth/value a student attaches
to a particular phenomena, object or behavior.
d. Organization – concerned with bringing together
different values and building a value system.
e. Characterization by a value or value complex –
developing a lifestyle from a value system.
3. Psychomotor Domain – (Simpson, 1972) – domain
on the use of psychomotor attributes.
a. Perception – use of senses to guide motor activities.
b. Set – readiness to take a particular type of action.
c. Guided response – concerned with early stages in learning
complex skills thru imitation and trial-error.
d. Mechanism – responses have become habitual. Performance
skills are with ease and confidence.
e. Complex overt responses – skillfull performance and with
complex movement patterns.
f. Adaptation – skill well-developed that the ability to modify is
very easy.
g. Origination – creating new movements patterns to fit the
situation – creativity is evident.
Component 2-Curriculum Content (Subject Matter)
All curricula have content, regardless of design/models.
Content is more than simply information to be learned in school.
 compendium of facts, concepts generalization, principles
and theories (curriculum specialists).
Subject-centered view of curriculum – fund of human
knowledge that represents repository of accumulated
discoveries/ inventions of man down the centuries, due to
man’s world exploration.
Learner-centered view of curriculum – relates knowledge to the
individual’s personal-social world and how he/she defines
reality.
“Knowledge is a model we construct to give meaning and
structure to regularities in experience”.
Broad Subject Areas in Basic (Gen.Ed.)
1. Communication Arts – skills in listening, speaking,
reading and writing, and effective use of language in
daily living.
2. Mathematics– numeric-computational skills,
geometry and measurement, algebra, logic and
reasoning.
3. Science – all branches of natural sciences, exploration
and discovery dealing with natural phenomena and use
of scientific method of investigation.
Broad Subject Areas in Basic (Gen.Ed.)
4. Social Studies - basic elements of Geography, History,
Sociology, Anthropology, Economics, Civics, Political
Science and Psychology.
5. Music –basic music theory, practice in listening, singing,
playing musical instruments & music preparation.
6. Physical education – health and physical fitness,
individual and team sports, spectatorship and wise use of
leisure.
7. Vocational education– psychomotor &manipulative
skills in basic crafts and trades, design, work ethics and
appreciation of manual productive work.
Selection Criteria of Curriculum SM Content/Knowledge
(Scheffler, 1970).
1. Self-sufficiency - prime guiding principle for content
selection: help learners attain maximum self-sufficiency in
learning in the most economical way- less teaching efforts
and educational resources, less learners’ effort but more
results and effective learning outcomes.

2. Significance -when content: a) contribute to basic ideas,

concepts, principles and generalization to achieve overall
aim of curriculum; b) develop learning abilities, skills,
processes and attitude; c) develop cognitive, affective and
psychomotor skills; and d) considered cultural aspects.
Selection Criteria of Curriculum SM Content/Knowledge
(Scheffler, 1970).

3. Validity - authenticity of SM selected. With info

explosion, oftentimes, knowledge selected for
school content may become obsolete – SM should
be checked at regular intervals, to determine if
content that was originally valid continues to be.
4. Interest–key criterion for a learner-centered curriculum.
Learner value content if meaningful to her/him--
interest should be considered and adjusted
considering: maturity, prior experiences, educ’l.
and social value of their interest, etc.
Selection Criteria of Curriculum SM Content/Knowledge
(Scheffler, 1970).
5. Utility –Usefulness of content maybe relative to learner who is going
to use it for present/future. Questions to consider: “Will I
use it in my future job?” “Will it add meaning to my life or
develop my human potential?”“Will SM be useful in solving
my current problems?”
6. Learnability –SM shld be w/n range of experience of learners –
clearly suggested by psycho found’s of curriculum. Ways
of presentng SM which can easily be learned: Optimal
placement and appropriate org’n/sequencing of contents.
7. Feasibility–Can SM be learned within time allowed, resources
available, expertise of teacher, and nature of learners?
Content selection should be within context of existing
 Principles in Organizing Learning Contents
(Palma, 1992)
1. Balance – content should be fairly distributed in depth
and breadth of particular learning area/ discipline to
ensure area/level will not be over-or-less crowded.
2. Articulation – when each level of SM is smoothly
connected to the next, glaring gaps and wasteful
overlaps will be avoided. Teamwork among teachers will
enhance this.
3. Sequence – logical arrangement of the SM –
deepening and broadening of content as it is taken up
in the higher levels.
Principles in Organizing Learning Contents
(Palma, 1992)
4. Integration – horizontal connections needed
in similar subj. areas so that learning will be
related to one another-will help learner get a
holistic/unified view of reality and outlook in
life.
5. Continuity – constant repetition, review and
reinforcement of learning. Learning requires
continuing application of new knowledge, skills,
attitudes/values to be used in daily living.
Component 3 – Curriculum Experiences
The core/heart of curriculum links instructional
strategies and methods to curriculum experiences.
Instructional strategies and methods put into action the goals and use the
content to produce an outcome.
Teaching strategies convert written curriculum to instruction.
Teacher and learner take actions to facilitate learning.
Actions are based on planned objectives, SM to be taken and support
materials to be used – include multitude of teaching methods and
educational activities which enhance learning as follows: time-tested
methods, inquiry approaches, constructivist and other emerging strategies
that complement new theories in teaching and learning.
Activities (field viewing, conducting experiments, interacting with computer
programs, field trips, other experiential learning) also form part of teaching
repertoire.
Guide in Selection & Use of Teaching Methods
to Implement the Curriculum
1. Teaching methods - means to achieve the end- used to translate
objectives into action.
2. No single best teaching methods – effectiveness of a method
depends on: learning objectives, learners and teacher’s skill.
3. Teaching methods should stimulate learners’ desire to develop
cognitive, affective, psychomotor, social, and spiritual domains of
learner.
4. In the choice of teaching methods, learning styles of students
should be considered.
5. Every method should lead to the development of learning
outcomes in the 3-domains.
6. Flexibility should be a consideration in the use of the teaching
Component 4 – Curriculum Evaluation
All curricula to be effective must have the element of evaluation
(Worthen & Sanders)
Curriculum evaluation – formal determination of the quality,
effectiveness or value of the program, process, product of the
curriculum.
Evaluation – meeting the goals and matching them with the
intended outcomes (Tuckman, 1985).
Based on the above definitions, different evaluation models
came out:
1) IPO Model– Input Process-Output (Fr. Swaenopoel)
2) Stufflebeam’s Context, Input, Process, Product (CIPP)
Model – the most widely used model.
 Stufflebeam’s CIPP Model
Context – environment of the curriculum; real situation where
curriculum is operating. Context evaluation refers to
situation analysis.
Input – ingredients of curriculum: goals, instructional strategies,
learners, teachers, contents and all materials needed.
Process – ways and means of how curriculum have been
implemented – looks into the entire operation of the
curriculum.
Product –indicates if curriculum accomplishes its goals –
determine to what extent curriculum objectives have
been achieved.
CIPP Model can be taken as a whole, or each
component taken separately – long, continues process.
Within the evaluation process, smaller, more specific
activities are needed to determine effectiveness of the
curriculum.
Activities include: assessment and measurement of
learning outcomes – the ultimate product of a curriculum
Methods to be utilized: diagnostic, placement,
formative or summative evaluation or the norm-
referenced or criterion-referenced measurement.
With the variety of evaluation methods are the
different materials which can be effectively utilized.
Suggested Plan of Action for Curr. Evaluation
Regardless of Methods & Materials Used)
1. Focus on one particular component of curriculum (subject
area, grade level, course/degree program). Specify objectives of
evaluation.
2. Collect info – made up of data needed regarding object of
evaluation.
3. Organize info – require coding, organizing, storing and retrieving
data for interpretation.
4. Analyze info – appropriate way of analyzing data should be
utilized.
5. Report info – evaluation report should be reported to specific
audiences – can be done formally in conferences with stakeholders,
or informally through roundtable discussions and conversations.
6. Recycle info for continuous feedback, modifications and
adjustments to be made.
 Components of curriculum are distinct but are
interrelated to each other in a curricular design

Aims
Objectives

Content/
Evaluation Subject
Matter

Methods/
Strategies
 Curriculum Approaches
Curriculum approaches available for use singly/ collectively
by curriculum practitioners/implementers in planning,
implementing and evaluating curriculum:
1. Behavioral approach (started by Frederick Taylor) –
Anchored on behaviorist principles, curriculum. is based on
blueprint where goals/objectives specified.
Contents & activities - arranged to match learning objectives.
Learning outcomes-evaluated in terms of goals, objectives set at the
beginning --aimed to achieve efficiency (factory worker is paid accdg. to
output produced w/n specific period of time).
In Educ. -begins which educational plans that start with setting of
goals/objectives – considered important ingredients in curriculum
implementation as evaluating learning outcomes as a change of behavior.
 Curriculum Approaches, cont’d
2. Managerial Approach – became dominant
curriculum approach in 50s-60s.
Principal - the curr leader and same time instructional leader
who is supposed to be the general manager.
General manager sets policies and priorities, establishes
direction of change and innovation, and planning and organizing
curriculum and instruction.
School administrator – less concerned about content than about
organization and implementation; less concerned about SM,
methods & materials than improving curriculum.
Curriculum managers look at curriculum changes and
innovations as they administer resources and restructure schools.
 Some Roles of Curriculum Supervisors
(Ornstein & Hunkins, 2004)
1. Help develop the school’s education goals.
2. Plan curriculum with students, parents, teachers and other
stakeholders.
3. Design programs of study by grade levels.
4. Plan or schedule classes or school calendar.
5. Prepare curriculum guides or teacher guides by grade level or
subject area.
6. Help in the evaluation and selection of textbooks.
7. Observe teachers.
8. Assist teachers in the implementation of curriculum.
9. Encourage curriculum innovation and change.
10. Develop standards for curriculum & instructional evaluation.
 Curriculum Approaches
3. Systems Approach - influenced by systems theory.

Parts of the total school district/school are examined in terms of

how they relate to each other.
Organizational chart of the school represent a system approach - - it
shows line-staff relationships of personnel and how decisions are made.
Systems theory of education see the following to be of equal
importance:
a) administration d) instruction
b) counselling e) evaluation
c) curriculum
 Curriculum Approaches
4. Humanistic Approach – rooted in
the progressive philosophy & child-
centered movement.
 considers formal/planned and informal/
hidden curricula.
 considers the whole child and believes that in
curriculum the total development of
individual is the prime consideration.
 learner is at the center of the curriculum.
F. CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD CURRICULUM
Not rigid- it allows room for flexibility, monitoring and evaluation by
administration.

should provide sufficient scope for: cultivation of unique skills, interest, attitudes &
appreciations.

should be psychologically sound.
1. Continuously evolving - must be a product of long/tedious process of
evaluation and change from one period to another.
2. Based on the needs of the people.

program must begin with those that concern the people themselves.

reflects the needs of the individual and the society as a whole.

must be in proper shape to meet challenges of times & make education more
responsive to clienteles.
3.Democratically conceived – developed through efforts of a group of individuals
from different sectors in society knowledgeable about the interest, needs, and
resources of learner and society - a product of many minds and energies.
F. CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD CURRICULUM, cont’d…
4. Result of a long-time effort – it takes a long time to go through
planning, management, evaluation and development of a good
curriculum.
5. Complex of details – provides proper instructional equipment and
meeting places often most conducive to learning.
includes teacher-student relationship, guidance & counselling
program, health services, school and community projects, library and
laboratories, and other school-related work experiences.
6. Provides for logical sequence of subject matter – Fact: learning is
developmental, hence, classes and activities should be planned to
achieve orderly development of SM & step-by-step progress of learner.
 smooth transition &continuing achievement of learners from one
subject matter, classroom, grade, or school to another.
 provides continuity of experience.
Why Curriculum Must Be Good?
1. provides teachers, students, school leaders and community stakeholders
with a measurable plan and structure for delivering a quality education.
2. identifies learning outcomes, standards & core competencies that
students must demonstrate before advancing to the next level.
Curriculum may incorporate the planned interaction of pupils with
instructional content, materials, resources, & processes for
evaluating the attainment of educational objectives.
Curricula are split into several categories:
1. explicit
2. implicit (including the hidden),
3. excluded
4. extracurricular
 Activity 1 – Lesson Plan: A Curriculum
(Elements/Components of the Curriculum)

1. Get a copy of the best written lesson plan (session

plan of your favorite teacher (Elementary/HS).
Add this to your portfolio collection.
a. What are the objectives of the lesson plan?
b. What is the subject-matter content?
c. What strategies/methods of teaching are utilized?
d. What evaluation procedure is used?
e. Do the four components fit or match with one
another? Explain.
f. Can you consider a lesson plan (session plan) as a
curriculum? Why?
 Activity 2 – Mr./Ms Principal: What Curriculum
Approach Are You Using?
(Elements/Components of the Curriculum)
1. Make an interview protocol regarding curriculum approach
with your groupmates. Submit your output to your course
professor for comments. Refine your instrument & place a
sample in your portfolio.
2. Choose a school with a principal as your respondent. Secure
permission to interview her/him at a certain time of the
school day. Record all the answers to your protocol.
3. From your interview, what kind of curriculum approach is
the principal using?
4. Why do you say so? Describe in detail her/his approach?
 UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN MINDANAO
COLLEGE OF EDUCATION
PROF ED 223 – Curriculum Development
Activity No. 3

Mr./Ms Principal: What Curriculum Approach Are You Using?

I- Socio-Demographic Profile
Name:______________________________________ Birthdate:___________ Age:_______
Civil Status:_______________Sex:_____Number of children:_____boys _____girls______
Present Position/Designation:__________________Monthly Salary: _________________
Years in service as teacher:_________ Years in service as principal:_________________

2. Curriculum Approach Used

a) What kind of curriculum approach are you using?
b) Is that the only approach you used since you became a principal? ____ Yes, ____ No. If yes,
why? ______________ If no, why? _____________

3. Do you intend to change your curriculum approach employed in the future? ___Yes ___No.
If yes, why? __________ If No, why? ____________

4. Instructional Materials used in teaching?

5. Methods of Evaluating the Curriculum

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