Essentials of

Biology
Sylvia S. Mader
Michael Windelspecht

Chapter 2
The Chemical
Basis of Life
Lecture Outline
See separate FlexArt PowerPoint slides
for all figures and tables pre-inserted
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2-1
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 2.1 Atoms and Atomic Bonds
Matter
• Refers to anything that takes up space and
has mass
• Can exist as a solid, liquid, or gas
• Composed of elements
• Element—substance that cannot be broken down
into another substance by ordinary chemical
means
• Only 92 naturally occurring elements
• Four elements make up about 96% of the body
weight of most living organisms—carbon,
hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen 2-2
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 Figure 2.1 Elements in Living
Organisms

(photo): © Brand X Pictures/PunchStock RF

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 Atomic Structure
Atomic structure
• Atomic theory states that elements consist of
atoms
• Atomic symbol—name of the atom or element
• H for hydrogen or Na for sodium
• Subatomic elements
• Neutrons—no electrical charge, found in nucleus
• Protons—positive charge, found in nucleus
• Electrons—negative charge, found outside of
nucleus
• Mass number is equal to sum of protons and
neutrons—electrons have about zero mass
• Atomic weight changes with gravity 2-4
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 Figure 2.2 Two Models of Helium
(He)

2-5
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 Atomic Number
Atomic number
• All atoms of an element have this same
number of protons
• Also gives number of electrons if an atom is
electrically neutral

Periodic table
• Elements’ chemical and physical
characteristics recur in a predictable manner
• Atoms are arranged in periods (rows) and
groups (columns) 2-6
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 Figure 2.3 A Portion of the Periodic
Table

2-7
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 Isotopes
Isotopes
• Atoms of the same element that differ in the
number of neutrons
• Isotopes have the same number of protons but
a different number of neutrons (different mass
numbers)
• Unstable and may decay, emitting radiation
• Radioactive isotope behavior is essentially the
same as a stable isotope of same element
• Can be used as tracer—PET scan
• Can cause damage to cells, leading to cancer
• Can be used to sterilize medical equipment 2-8
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 Figure 2.4 PET Scan

© National Institutes of Health

2-9
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 Figure 2.5 High Levels of Radiation

a: © DigitalGlobe/Getty Images; b: © Getty Images 2-10

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 Arrangement of Electrons in an
Atom, 1
Arrangement of electrons in an atom
• Electrons are constantly moving.
• Useful to construct models of atoms with
energy levels or electron shells
• Each shell contains a certain number of
electrons.
• For atoms up through number 20
• 2 electrons fill first shell
• 8 electrons fill each additional shell

2-11
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 Arrangement of Electrons in an
Atom, 2
Arrangement of electrons in an atom,
continued
• Octet rule for valence shell
• Valence shell—outermost shell
• If an atom has more than 2 shells, the outer shell is
most stable with 8 electrons
• Atoms can give up, accept, or share electrons to
have 8
• Chemical properties of atoms are largely
determined by the arrangement of their
electrons. 2-12
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 Figure 2.6 Atoms of the Six
Important Elements

2-13
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 Types of Chemical Bonds, 1
Types of chemical bonds
• Molecule—group of atoms bonded together
• ,,,
• Compound—molecule containing atoms of
more than one element
•,
• 2 types of bonds
• Ionic—attraction between opposite charges
• Covalent—sharing electrons to complete outer
shell
2-14
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 Types of Chemical Bonds, 2
Ionic bonding
• Forms when 2 atoms are held together by the
attraction between opposite charges
• Sodium has 1 electron in valence shell
• Usually gives up an electron
• Chlorine has 7 electrons in valence shell
• Usually accepts an electron from another atom
• Ions—charged atoms
• Sodium has 1 more proton than electrons: now
• Chlorine has 1 more electron than protons: now
• Ionic compounds often called salts 2-15
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 Figure 2.7a Formation of Sodium
Chloride

2-16
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Types of Chemical Bonds: Covalent
Covalent bonding
• 2 atoms share electrons
• 2 hydrogen atoms can share electrons to fill their
outer shell—orbitals overlap.

• Structural formula—uses straight lines H-H

• 1 line indicates 1 pair of shared electrons.
• Molecular formula—simply shows number of
atoms involved 2-17
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 Double Covalent Bonds
Double covalent bonding
• 2 atoms share 4 electrons
• Double bonds are stronger than single bonds

2-18
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 Figure 2.8 Shapes of Covalently
Bonded Molecules
Methane

b. Structural model

a. Electron model showing covalent bonds

d. Space-filling model
c. Ball-and-stick model
2-19
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Chemical Formulas and Reactions, 1
Chemical formulas and reactions
• Reactants—molecules that participate in
reactions
• Shown to the left of the arrow
• Products—molecules formed by reactions
• Shown to the right of the arrow

2-20
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Chemical Formulas and Reactions, 2
Equation is balanced if the same number of
each type of atom occurs on both sides of the
arrow.
• An overall equation for photosynthesis
6 CO 2 6 H 2 O C 6 H 12 O6 6 O2
+ → +
carbon   dioxide water glucose   oxygen
• Molecular formula for glucose

2-21
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 2.2 Water’s Importance to Life
• Life began in water
• Single most important molecule on Earth
• All organisms are 70–90% water
• Water has unique properties that make it a
life-supporting substance
• Properties stem from the structure of the
molecule

2-22
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Water’s Importance to Life: Structure
The structure of water
• Polar covalent bond
• Atoms do not share electrons equally.
• Oxygen is more electronegative than hydrogen.
• Electrons spend more time around the oxygen
nucleus than the hydrogen nuclei.
• Oxygen end becomes slightly negative/hydrogens
become slightly positive—NOT an ionic bond or
ions
• Hydrogen bond—slightly positive hydrogen of
one water molecule attracted to the slightly
negative oxygen in another water molecule 2-23
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 Figure 2.9 The Structure of Water

2-24
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 Properties of Water: Overview
Properties of water
• Solvency
• Cohesion and adhesion The salt NaCl dissociates in water.

• High surface tension

• High heat capacity
• High heat of vaporization
• Varying density

2-25
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 Properties of Water: Solvency
Water is a solvent
• Due to polarity and H-bonding, water
dissolves many substances
• Hydrophilic—molecules attracted to water
• Hydrophobic—molecules not attracted to
water
• Water causes NaCl to dissociate

2-26
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 Properties of Water: Cohesion and
Adhesion
Cohesion
• Ability of water molecules to cling to each other
due to hydrogen bonding
Adhesion
• Ability of water molecules to cling to other polar
surfaces
Allows water to be excellent transport
system both inside and outside of living
organisms
Contributes to water transport in plants 2-27
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 Figure 2.10 Cohesion and Adhesion
of Water Molecules

(tree): © Paul Davies/Alamy; (man): © Asiaselects/Getty RF

2-28
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 Properties of Water: High Surface
Tension
Water has a high surface tension.
• Water molecules at the surface cling more
tightly to each other than to the air above.
• Mainly due to hydrogen bonding

© Martin Shields/Alamy
2-29
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 Properties of Water: Heat Capacity
and Heat of Vaporization
Water has a high heat capacity.
• The many hydrogen bonds linking water
molecules allow water to absorb heat
without greatly changing its temperature.
• Temperature of water rises and falls slowly.

Heat of vaporization
• Takes a great deal of energy to break H
bonds for evaporation.
• Heat is dispelled as water evaporates. 2-30
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 Figure 2.11 Heat Capacity and Heat
of Vaporization

a: © Jill Bratten/McGraw-Hill Education; b: © Clerkenwell/Getty RF

2-31
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Properties of Water: Varying Density

Ice is less dense than water.

• Unlike other substances, water expands as it
freezes.
• Ice floats rather than sinks.
• It makes life possible in water.
• Ice acts as an insulator.

2-32
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 Figure 2.12 Properties of Ice

2-33
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 2.3 Acids and Bases

• Water dissociates into an equal number of

hydrogen ions and hydroxide ions .

OH −
H − O− H
⇄ H hydrogen + hydroxide
+¿ ¿
water ion   ion  

2-34
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 Acidic Solutions (High
Concentration)
• Lemon juice, vinegar, and coffee
• Acids release hydrogen ions

HCl Cl −
+¿¿ hydrogen
hydrochloric → H + chloride
ion
acid   ion  

2-35
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 Basic Solutions (Low
Concentration)
• Milk of magnesia and ammonia
• Either take up hydrogen ions or release
hydroxide ions

NaOH OH −
+¿¿ sodium
sodium → Na + hydroxide
ion  
hydroxide   ion  

2-36
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 pH and pH Scale

pH and the pH scale

• Mathematical way to indicate the number of
hydrogen ions in solution
• pH scale ranges from 0 to 14
• pH below 7 is acidic—more than
• pH above 7 is basic—more than
• pH of 7 is neutral— equal to

2-37
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 Figure 2.13 The pH Scale

2-38
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 Buffers and pH

Buffers and pH
• Chemical or combination of chemicals that
keeps pH within normal limits
• Resists pH change by taking up excess or
• pH of blood is about 7.35 – 7.45 and is
maintained by buffer

2-39
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 Figure 2.14 Acidosis
Central Nervous System

• Sleepiness and loss

of consciousness
• Confusion
• Headache
• Coma Respiratory

• Coughing and
shortness of breath

Heart

Muscular
• Arrhythmia

• Weakness • Increased heart rate

Gastric

• Nausea
• Vomiting
Intestinal

• Diarrhea

2-40
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