Dr. N.G.P.

Institute of Technology - Coimbatore-48

(An Autonomous Institution)

Analog and Digital Integrated Circuits

Unit- II – A/D AND D/A AND PLL

S.DIVYA
AP
BioMedical Engineering
Analog Switches
• Series switch
• Shunt Switch

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High Speed Sample and Hold Circuits
• Sample-and-hold (S/H) is an
important analog building block
with many applications, including
analog-to-digital converters (ADCs)
and switched-capacitor filters.
• The function of the S/H circuit is to
sample an analog input signal and
hold this value over a certain
length of time for subsequent
processing.

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 Cond..
• When ck is high, the MOS switch
is on, which in turn allows Vout
to track Vin.

• When ck is low, the MOS switch

is off, Vout equal to the value of
Vin

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Analog Signal
• Any continuous signal that a
time varying variable of the
signal is a representation of
some other time varying
quantity

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 Digital Signal
• A digital signal is a function in
which the time and amplitude
are quantized.
• A digital signal is always
represented by sequence of
words, where each word can
contain a finite number of bits.
(binary digits)

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Need for Data Converters
• The data converters convert one form of data to another form.
• Real world processes produce analog signals which carry information
pertaining to process variables such as voltage, current, charge,
temperature and pressure.
• It is difficult to
store
manipulate
compare
calculate
retrieve such data with good accuracy using analog technology.

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 Contd..
• Computers can perform these operation quickly and efficiently using digital
techniques.
• Therefore it is necessary to convert analog signals into equivalent digital
data.
• Thus the converting of analog signal to digital data emerged.
• The computers need to communicate with people and physical processes
through the use of analog signals, which emerged the process of digital to
analog conversion.

A/D converter (ADC)

Data Converters
D/A converter (DAC)
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Data Converter

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A/D and D/A Functional Block

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ADC
Analog to Digital Conversion is the process by which analog signals are
converted to their digitized forms.
• ADC occurs via three steps:
Sampling.
Quantization.
Encoding.

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ADC Symbol, Block and Waveform

a) Symbol

b) Block Diagram
c) Waveform

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Sampling
• The analog signal is sampled at regular intervals of time.

• The sampling rate must be at least twice the highest frequency of the
signal ( Nyquist Criterion).

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Quantization
• Quantization is defined as the process of converting the continuous sample
amplitude into a discrete amplitude. Thus by then, the signal will be discrete
in both; time and amplitude.

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Quantization Error
• The difference between the actual analog value and quantized digital
value.

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Encoding
• Encoding is the process which assigns ones and zeros (stream of bits)
for every quantization level.

• The number of bits assigned for each level (n) depends on the levels’
number (L) ; such that L= 2^n.

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Ideal ADC
• Q= Δ=quantization step = full scale / levels’
number.
• The resolution of the ADC is the smallest
detectable change in voltage.
• In an ideal analog-to-digital converter, the
quantization error is uniformly distributed
between –Δ/2 and Δ/2.

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Types Of ADCs
1. Flash ADC
2. Dual slope ADC
3. Successive Approximation Register (SAR) ADC

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Flash (parallel) converter
• Since Flash ADCs (FADCs) is simple-structured, they are fast.
• A string of resistors between two voltage references supplies a set of
uniformly spaced voltages that span the input range, one for each
comparator.
• The input voltage is compared with all of these voltages simultaneously.
• Comparator outputs = 1 for all voltages below the input voltage
• Comparator outputs = 0 for all the voltages above the input voltage.
• The resulting collection of digital outputs is called a “thermometer
code”.

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Flash ADC

A flash converter has 2 n-1 comparators operating in parallel.

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Pros and Cons
Pros Cons
• It is the fastest type of ADC • It is not suitable for higher
because the conversion is number of bits.
performed simultaneously
through a set of comparators
• Typical conversion time is 100ns
or less.
• The construction is simple and
easier to design

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Integrating converter-Dual Slope
• Integrating converters are used for low speed, high-resolution
applications such as voltmeters.
• They are conceptually simple, consisting of an integrating amplifier, a
comparator, a digital counter, and a very stable capacitor for
accumulating charge.
• The most common integrating ADC in use is the dual-slope ADC.

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Dual slope

A dual-slope integrating converter uses a comparator to determine when the

capacitor has fully discharged.
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Dual slope

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Working
• At t<0, S1 is set to ground, S2 is closed, and counter=0.
• At t=0 a conversion begins and S2 is open, and S1 is set so the input to
the integrator is Vin.
• S1 is held for TINT which is a constant predetermined time interval.
• When S1 is set the counter begins to count clock pulses, the counter
resets to zero after TINT
• Vout of integrator at t=TINT is VinTINT/RC is linearly proportional to Vin

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 Contd..
• At t=TINT S1 is set so -Vref is the input to the integrator which has the
voltage VINTINT/RC stored in it.
• The integrator voltage then drops linearly with a slope -Vref/RC.
• A comparator is used to determine when the output voltage of the
integrator crosses zero
• When it is zero the digitized output value is the state of the counter.

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 Contd..

At time 0, the input is switched to analog input and the switch across the
capacitor opens. After the capacitor is integrated, the input is switched to the
voltage reference to discharge the capacitor, and the counter begins counting a
known clock. The comparator turns off the counter at time T2.

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Pros and Cons
Pros Cons
• The conversion result is • Slow
insensitive to errors in the • Accuracy is dependent on the use
component values. of precision external components
• Fewer adverse effects from • Costly
“noise”
• High Accuracy

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SAR ADC
• It is one of the popular ADCs for 8-16 bits.
• It has moderate conversion speeds ; the conversion time is around 1
Us.
• It doesn’t consume a lot of power and its cost is low in comparison
with the other types.
• On the other hand, it requires a sample and hold circuit and it can
have missing output codes.

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SAR

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Working
• Initially, a start pulse is given by start/stop multivibrator to the Control
Register(SAR) through the gate. The SAR output is 00000000.
• The Vout is 0. The DAC output Vout is compared with the input voltage
Vin using comparator.
• If Vin>Vout, the comparator output is positive. During first clock pulse,
bit D7 is set to 1 and Vout becomes half reference voltage. The SAR
output is 10000000.
• If Vin<Vout, the comparator output is negative. The bit D7 is reset to 0
and next bit i.e D6 is set to 1.
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 Contd..
• This is done by ring counter that advances one count, shifting 1 in the
second MSB of the control register and its reading becomes
11000000. This makes DAC output Vout = (½Vref)+(1/4Vref).
• In this manner, all the bits are set and tested till the 8 clocks are
applied.
• Let us take an example with a reference voltage, Vref= 5V and input
voltage, Vin= 1V.

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Flow chart

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Example
Vref=5V, Vs=3.127V, 4-bits.(b1b2b3b4)

1. Set b1=1 all b2b3b4=000 >> 1000

Vdac=8*5/(2^4)=2.5V
(Vdac=2.5)>(Vs=3.127) No!!
b1=1

2. Set b2=1 all b3b4=00 >> 1100

Vdac=12*5/(2^4)=3.75V
(Vdac=3.75)>(Vs=3.127) Yes
b2=0
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 Contd..
3. Set b3=1 b4=0 >> 1010
Vdac=10*5/(2^4)=3.12Contd..
5V
(Vdac=3.125)>(Vs=3.127) No!!
b3=1

4. Set b4=1 >>1011

Vdac=11*5/(2^4)=3.4375V
(Vdac=3.4375)>(Vs=3.127) Yes
b4=0

Final Result=1010

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Pros and Cons
Pros Cons
• It has high accuracy • Design complexity
• low power consumption • Cost of production
• easy to use
• low latency time. 

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A/D Converter Specification
• Resolution
• Accuracy
• Quantization Error
• Analog Error
• Linearity Error

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Resolution
The resolution refers to the finest minimum change in the signal which is
accepted for conversion, and it is decided with respect to the number of
bits.
It is defined as resolution = 1/2 , where n is the number of digital word
n

bits.
The ratio of the full-scale input voltage VFS to the resolution gives the
minimum change of input voltage which can cause a change of 1LSB at
the output.
vi for 1LSB=VFS/ 2 n

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For Example
• If an 8 bit word is used and maximum analog signal amplitude of 1V is
used, then
resolution= 1V =3.9mV
28

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 Formative Assessment 1
Q1
In a flash analog to digital converter, the output of each comparator is
connected to an input of a
1.Decoder
2.Priority Encoder
3.Multiplexer
4.Demultiplexer

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 Q2
Which is not an ADC converter error
1. Differential non linearity
2. Missing Code
3. Incorrect Error
4. Offset

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Digital to Analog Converter
• A digital-to-analog converter (DAC) is an integrated circuit (IC) device
which converts an N bit digital word to an equivalent analog voltage
or current.
• It allows digital information which has been processed and/or stored
by a digital computer to be realized in analog form.

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 Contd..
A D/A Converter produces an analog voltage proportional to the digital
input.
Example: D/A designed to output 0 to 10 volts.
• Input to D/A is an 8 bit digital value.
• Digital value 0 produces a 0 volt output.
• Digital value 1 produces a 1 x 10/256 volt output.
• Digital value 2 produces a 2 x 10/256 volt output.
• Digital value 255 produces a 255 x 10/256 volt output

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DAC Symbol, Block and Waveform

a) Symbol

b) Block Diagram c) Waveform

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Types Of DAC
1. Weighted resistor DAC
Summing amplifier to form the weighted sum of all non-zero bits
in the input
2. R-2R DAC
Maintains constants current through all branches

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Weighted resistor DAC
• The output voltage is the inverted sum of all the input voltages.
• If the input resistor values are set to multiples of two: 1R, 2R and 4R, the
output voltage would be equal to the sum of V1, V2/2 and V3/4.
• V1 corresponds to the most significant bit (MSB) while V3 corresponds
to the least significant bit

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 Contd..
• The binary inputs, ai (where i = 1, 2,
3 and 4) have values of either 0
represents or 1
• The value 0 represents an open
switch while 1 a closed switch
• The operational amplifier is used as
a summing amplifier, which gives a
weighted sum of the binary input
based on the voltage, Vref.

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 Contd..
For a 4-bit DAC, the relationship between Vout and the
binary input is

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 Contd..
• The negative sign associated with the analog output is due to the
connection to a summing amplifier, which is a polarity-inverting
amplifier. When a signal is applied to the latter type of amplifier, the
polarity of the signal is reversed (i.e. a + input becomes -, or vice
versa).
• For a n-bit DAC, the relationship between Vout and the binary input is
as follows:

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Pros and Cons
Pros Cons
• Easily Understood • Limited to 8 bits
• Large number of resistor
• Expensive
• Susceptible to noise

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 R-2R DAC
• The R-2R network consists of resistors with only two values - R and
2xR. If each input is supplied either 0 volts or reference voltage, the
output voltage will be an analog equivalent of the binary value of
the three bits.

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 Contd..

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 Contd..

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Pros and Cons
Pros Cons
• R-2R Ladder DAC contains only • It is difficult to get the
two values of resistor: R and 2R. generalized output voltage
• Easy to select and design more equation of a R-2R Ladder DAC
accurate resistors.

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 Contd..
• The DAC analog output is represented by current. This current is the
ratio of the input code to the full scale voltage (Vref) as given in the
following equation:

So, an operational amplifier is needed to convert the current to voltage level.

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Pros and Cons
Pros Cons
• Easy to implement • Analysis is complicated
• Easy to manufacture
• Faster response time

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Application of DAC
1. CD Player
2. MP3 Player
3. Digital Telephone/Answering Machine
4. Signal Generator
5. Digital Signal Oscillscope
6. Motor Control

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Application of DAC

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 Formative Assessment 2
Q1
The Resolution of a 0-5V 6 bit digital to analog converter DAC is
1. 63%
2. 64%
3. 1.56%
4. 15.6%

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 Q2
The practical use of binary weighted DAC is limited to
1. R-2R ladder
2. 4-bit D/A Converter
3. 8 –bit D/A Converter
4. 15.6%

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Voltage To Frequency Converter (VFC)
• A voltage-to-frequency converter (VFC) is an oscillator .Its frequency is
linearly proportional to the control voltage.
• It integrates noise and can consume very small amount of power.
• The voltage to frequency converter(VFC) is also very useful for
telemetry applications

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Voltage Controlled Oscillator (VCO)
• It is a device that produces such an oscillating output
signal whose frequency can be regulated or altered by the input
dc voltage.
• Frequency of an oscillator is measured by RC time constant.
However, there exist some applications where the frequency is to
be controlled by the input voltage.
• VCO generates an output signal having an adjustable frequency
range that is controlled by the dc input voltage.

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Block Diagram of VCO

The output signal generated by VCO can typically be a square and

triangular wave.

VCO can be in the form of either LC, crystal oscillator, RC oscillator or

Multivibrator.

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 Contd..
• For RC type oscillator

where the frequency of the oscillator is inversely proportional to C.

• For an LC type oscillator

again there exists an inverse relationship between f and C.

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VCO categories

Linear VCO or Harmonics oscillator

In this type of oscillator, LC tank circuits are employed so as to
provide a sinusoidal waveform. Its operation is such that the
capacitance of the varactor diode is varied by the voltage across the
diode.
RelaxationOscillator
This category of waveform generates the triangular or sawtooth
waveform. This type mainly shows its applications as an Astable
Multivibrator or Schmitt trigger.

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Working of VCO using IC 566

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 Contd..
• A VCO generates output whose frequency is controlled by the dc input voltage.
• The input voltage is applied at the control terminal 5.
• The frequency of the oscillator is set by external resistance and capacitance R 1 and C1.
• Current sources that are responsible for charging and discharging the external
capacitance C1.
• The external resistance R1 and dc input voltage decide the rate for charging and
discharging.
• The schmitt trigger provides square wave and the triangular voltage generated across
the capacitor are the output that is given together through the buffer amplifier.
• This buffer amplifier transfers the high impedance to a low impedance output so that
the output impedance of each is 50Ω.

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Working of VCO using Op-amp

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Working
• A square wave is generated at the output of the above circuit whose
frequency is controlled by the input voltage.
• The Op-amp at the beginning of the circuit works as an integrator. As the
control voltage is applied, at the input terminal of the op-amp, due to
the voltage divider arrangement only half of the control voltage is
applied at the positive terminal.
• The voltage at the negative terminal is at the same level so as to
maintain a voltage drop across R1.

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 Contd..
• The current from resistor R1 flows through MOSFET. The input voltage
charges the capacitor. Thus, providing steadily rising output voltage.
• Now, when MOSFET is turned OFF, the current through R1 discharges
the capacitor C1. Thus we will have falling output voltage. So, we will
have a triangular waveform at the output of op-amp 1.
• Here, op-amp 2 works a Schmitt trigger. The output of op-amp 1
serves as the input of op-amp 2. At the output of op-amp 2, a square
wave is obtained

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 Applications of VCO

 These are used in function generators.

 VCO is the elemental building block of phase locked loops.
 In frequency shift keying techniques.
 In frequency modulation.
 These are used in tone generators.

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Phase Locked Loop (PLL)
• PLL is basically a closed loop system.
• Its application is to lock the output frequency and phase of input
signal.
• PLL is used for communication circuits in two different ways
Demodulation application
Synchronization of signal

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Application
• FM demodulation
• FSK demodulation
• Motor speed control
• Frequency multiplication and division

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Block Diagram

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• Phase detector (also known as a phase comparator or mixer). It
compares the phases of two signals, and generates a voltage
according to the phase difference. It multiplies the reference input
and the voltage-controlled oscillator output.
• Voltage-controlled oscillator. Generates a sinusoidal signal, whose
frequency closely matches the center frequency provided by the low-
pass filter.
• Low-pass filter. A kind of loop filter that attenuates the high-
frequency alternating current (AC) component of the input signal to
smoothen and flatten the signal to make it more DC-like.

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 Contd..
• Phase detector analog multiplier,
• Voltage-controlled oscillator  gain block, 
• Low-pass filter  lag block.

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Frequency Shift Keying
• FSK is the digital modulation technique in which the frequency of the
carrier signal varies according to the digital signal changes.
• The output of a FSK modulated wave is high in frequency for a binary
High input and is low in frequency for a binary Low input. The binary 

1s  Mark frequency

  0s  Space frequency.

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FSK Waveform

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FSK modulator
• Two oscillators with a clock
• Input binary sequence

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FSK Demodulator
Asynchronous detector  
Synchronous detector.
The synchronous detector is a coherent one, while asynchronous
detector is a non-coherent one.
• Asynchronous FSK Detector
• The block diagram of

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Asynchronous FSK Detector

Two band pass filters,

Two envelope detectors
A decision circuit. 

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 READING & DISCUSSION

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 SUMMARY
Data Conversion
• Need for Conversion
• ADC
• DAC
• Types of ADC
• Flash ADC
• Dual Slope ADC
• SAR ADC
• Types of DAC
• Weighted Resistor
• R-2R Ladder DAC
• Transitive dependency
• PLL
•01/02/2023
FSK Demodulator 83