Design of Machine Elements

Dr. G Praveen Kumar.

Assistant Professor
Mechanical Engineering Department
IIITDM Kurnool
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 Design
of
Machine
Elements

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 Module-II
Design Against Fluctuating Load

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Contents

• Stress concentration and the factors responsible.

• Determination of stress concentration factor; experimental and theoretical methods.

• Methods of reducing stress concentration

• Fatigue strength reduction factor and notch sensitivity factor.

• Cumulative damage in fatigue.

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Stress Concentration
 In design of elements three fundamental equations are used
P Mb y Mt r
t  b  
A I J
 The above equations are called elementary equations and are based on a number of
assumptions.
 One of the assumptions is that there are no discontinuities in the cross section of the
component.
 In practice, discontinuities and abrupt changes in cross section are unavoidable due to
certain features of the component such as oil holes and grooves, keyways and splines,
screw threads and shoulders.

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Stress Concentration
Definition:
 Stress concentration is defined as the localization of high
stresses due to the irregularities present in the component
and abrupt changes of the cross section.
 In order to consider the effect of stress concentration and
find out localized stresses, a factor called stress
concentration factor is used. It is denoted by Kt and
defined as
Highest value of actual stress near discontinuity
Kt 
Nominal stress obtained by elementary equation for minimum cross-section

 max 
Kt    
max o o

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Causes of stress concentration
(i)Variation in Properties of Materials
• Internal cracks and flaws like blow holes
• Cavities in welds
• Air holes in steel components
• Non-metallic or foreign inclusions
(ii) Load Application
• Machine components are subjected to forces
• These forces act either at point or over a small area
• Since the area is small, the pressure at these points is excessive
• This results in stress concentration

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Causes of stress concentration
Load Application
Examples:

• Contact between the meshing teeth of the driving and the driven
gear

• Contact between the cam and the follower

• Contact between the balls and the races of ball bearing

• Contact between the rail and the wheel

• Contact
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between the crane hook and the chain
Dr. G.Praveen Kumar, IIITDM Kurnool 8
Causes of stress concentration
(iii) Abrupt Changes in Section
• In order to mount gears, sprockets, pulleys and ball bearings on transmission shaft,
steps are cut on the shaft and shoulders are provided from assembly considerations
(iv) Discontinuities in the Component
• Certain features of machine components such as oil holes or oil grooves, keyways and
splines, and screw threads result in discontinuities in the cross-section of the
component
(v) Machining Scratches
• Machining scratches, stamp mark or inspection mark are surface irregularities,
which cause stress concentration

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Stress concentration factors
•The stress concentration factors are determined by two methods, viz., the mathematical
method based on the theory of elasticity and experimental methods like photo-elasticity.
• For simple geometric shapes, the stress concentration factors are determined by photo-
elasticity method.
• experimental methods

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Stress concentration factors
•The charts for stress concentration factors for different geometries shapes and
condition of loading were originally by R.E. Peterson.

• Rectangular Plate with Transverse Hole in Tension or

Compression

P
0 
(w 
d )t

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Stress concentration factors
• Flat Plate with Shoulder Fillet in Tension or Compression

P
  dt
0

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Stress concentration factors
• Round Shaft with Shoulder Fillet in Tension

0 P

2
4 d

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Stress concentration factors
• Round Shaft with Shoulder Fillet in Bending

Mb y
b 
I
• Where

d 4 d
I y
64 2

15
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Stress concentration factors
• Round Shaft with Shoulder Fillet in Torsion

Mt r
 
J
• Where
d 4 d
J r
32 2

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Stress concentration factors
Mathematical method based on theory of elasticity
 It is possible to find out stress concentration factor for some simple geometric shapes
using theory of elasticity.
 A flat plate with elliptical hole subjected to tensile force is given by

2a
Kt  1 b

a = half width (or semi-axis) of ellipse perpendicular to the direction of load

b = half width (or semi-axis) of ellipse in the direction of load
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Reduction of stress concentration

(a) Force Flow around Sharp Corner

(b) Force Flow around Round Corner

Force Flow Analogy

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Reduction of stress concentration

 Additional Notches and Holes in Tension Member

 Fillet Radius, Undercutting and Notch for Member in

Bending

 Drilling Additional Holes for Shaft with keyway

 Reduction of Stress Concentration in Threaded

Members

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Reduction of stress concentration
Additional Notches and Holes in Tension Member

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Reduction of stress concentration
Fillet Radius, Undercutting and Notch for Member in
Bending

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Reduction of stress concentration
Drilling additional holes for shaft

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Reduction of stress concentration
Reduction of stress concentration in threaded members

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Reduction of stress concentration
Qu.1. A flat plate subjected to a tensile force of
5 kN is shown in Fig. The plate material is
grey cast iron FG 200 and the factor of
safety is 2.5. Determine the thickness of
the plate.

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Reduction of stress concentration

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Reduction of stress concentration

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Reduction of stress concentration

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Reduction of stress concentration
Qu.2. A shaft carrying a load of 2.5 kN midway between
two bearings is shown in figure. Determine the
dimensions of shaft. Assume the shaft material to
be brittle, with an ultimate tensile strength of 300
N/mm2,The factor of safety is 3.

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Reduction of stress concentration

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Reduction of stress concentration

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Reduction of stress concentration
Qu.3. A plate 10 mm thick, subjected to tensile
load of 20 kN is shown in figure. The plate
is made of cast iron (Sut=350 N/mm2) and
the factor of safety is 2.5. Determine the
fillet radius.

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Fluctuating Stress
• In many applications, the components are subjected to forces that are not static, but
vary in magnitude with respect to time. The stresses induced due to such forces are
called fluctuating stresses.
• Fluctuating stresses (repeated over long period of time) will cause a part to fail
(fracture) at a stress level much smaller than the ultimate strength (or even the yield
strength in some cases).
• It is observed that about 80% of failures of mechanical components are due to ‘fatigue
failure’ resulting from fluctuating stresses.

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Cyclic Stress
There are three types of mathematical model for cyclic
stresses:
 Fluctuating or alternating stresses
 Repeated stresses
 Reversed stresses
1. 1. Fluctuating Stresses
The fluctuating or alternating stress varies in a
sinusoidal manner with respect to time.
 mean value
1
Mean Stress  m  2 max  min

 amplitude value
It fluctuates between two limits 1
Stress Amplitude  a 2 max
min

maximum and minimum stress.
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Cyclic Stress
2. Repeated Stresses
 In repeated stresses the variation is from zero to
some maximum value.
 The minimum stress is zero in this case and therefore,
amplitude stress and mean stress are equal.
3. Reversed Stresses
 The reversed stress has zero mean stress. In this
case, half portion of the cycle consists of tensile
stress and the remaining half of compressive stress.
 A complete reversal from tension to compression
between these two halves. The mean stress is zero.

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Fatigue Failure
 It has been observed that materials fail under fluctuating stresses at a stress
magnitude lower than the ultimate tensile strength of the materials and sometimes
even lower than the yield strength of the material. Such type of failure of a material is
known as fatigue.
 The failure is caused by means of a progressive crack formation which are usually fine
and of microscopic size. The failure may occur even without any prior indication.
 The fatigue of material is effected by the size of the component, relative magnitude of
static and fluctuating loads and the number of load reversals.

Shearing of wire
Bending of wire unbending of wire
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Endurance Limit
 The fatigue or endurance limit of a material is defined as the maximum amplitude
of completely reversed stress that the standard specimen can sustain for an
unlimited number of cycles without fatigue failure.
 Since the fatigue test can not be conducted for unlimited or infinite number of
cycles, so 106 cycles were considered as sufficient number of cycles to define
endurance.
 The fatigue life is defined as the number of stress cycles that the standard specimen
can complete during the test before the appearance of the first fatigue crack.

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Endurance Limit
 Fatigue strength of material is determined by R.R. Moore rotating beam
machine. The surface is polished in the axial direction. A constant bending load
is applied.

Fi g . 5.19 Rotating B e a m Fatigue Testing Machine

Fig. 5.18 Rotating Beam

Subjected to Bending moment
Fi g . 5.17 Specimen for Fatigue Test (a) Beam,
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S-N Curve
 A record is kept of the number of cycles required to produce failure at a given stress,
and the results are plotted in stress-cycle curve as shown in figure.
 A little consideration will show that if the stress is kept below a certain value the
material will not fail whatever may be the number of cycles.
 This stress, as represented by dotted line, is known as endurance or fatigue limit
(Se).
 It is defined as maximum value of the completely reversed bending stress which a
polished standard specimen can withstand without failure, for infinite number of
cycles (usually 106 cycles).

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S-N Curve
•The results of these tests are plotted by means of an S–N curve. The S–N
curve is the graphical representation of stress amplitude (Sf) versus the
number of stress cycles (N) before the fatigue failure on a log-log graph paper.
•The S–N curve for steels is illustrated in Fig.

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S-N Curve
•For ferrous materials like steels, the S–N curve becomes asymptotic at 106 cycles, which indicates the
stress amplitude corresponding to infinite number of stress cycles.
•The magnitude of this stress amplitude at 106 cycles represents the endurance limit of the material.
•The S–N curve shown in Fig. 5.20 is valid only for ferrous metals.

•For nonferrous metals like Aluminum alloys, the S–N curve slopes gradually even after 106 cycles.

•Any fatigue failure when the number of stress cycles are less than 1000, is called low-cycle fatigue. Any
fatigue failure when the number of stress cycles are more than 1000, is called high-cycle fatigue.

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Notch Sensitivity
• It has been observed that the actual reduction in the endurance limit of
material due to stress concentration is less than the am ount indicated by
the theoretical stress concentration Kt .
Kf is the fatigue stress concentration factor, is defined as:
Kf Endurance limit of notch free specimen

Endurance limit of notched specimen
• Notch sensitivity is defined as the susceptibility of a material to yield to the
damaging effects of stress raising notches in fatigue loading.
• The notch sensitivity factor q is defined as
Increase of actual stress over nominal stress 𝜎0 = Nominal Stress
q
Increase of theoretical stress over nominal stress
K f o Actual stress
K f
1 
1 K to Theoretical stress
q  K f  0   0
q
 t

K f  1q  K t
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Notch Sensitivity

q  K f
K t 1
 written as
1be
The above equation can

K f  1 q K t 1
I. When the material has no sensitivity to
notches, q = 0 and Kf = 1
II. When the material is fully sensitive to
notches,
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q = 1 and Kf = Kt Dr. G.Praveen Kumar, IIITDM Kurnool 41
Notch Sensitivity

F i g . 5 . 2 2 Notch S en s i ti v i t y C h a r t s (for R e v e r s e d B e n d i n g
a n d Re v e r s e d Axial Stress es)

F i g . 5 . 2 3 Notch S e n s i t i v i t y C h a r t s (for R e v e r s e d
Torsional S h e a r S t r e s s e s )

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Endurance Limit- Approximate estimate

• The endurance limit of a real machine component is lower than the estimated of
experimentally determined endurance limit because the size, shape, surface finish,
etc. of a components are generally quite different from those of the specimens used
in testing. As such the following relationship is generally used to determine
endurance strength of real component.
Se = kakbkckdSe’

Where Se = endurance limit stress of a particular mechanical component subjected to reverse bending
stress (N/mm2)
Se’ = endurance limit stress of a rotating beam specimen subjected to reversed bending stress (N/mm2)
ka = surface finish factor (machined parts have different finish)
kb = size factor (larger parts greater probability of finding defects)
kc = reliability / statistical scatter factor (accounts for random variation)
kd = modifying factor to account for stress concentration
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Endurance Limit- Approximate estimate

There is an approximate relationship between the endurance limit and the

ultimate tensile strength of the material.

For steel,
S e'  ut
0.5S
For cast iron and cast steel, S e'  0.4Sut

For wrought aluminum alloys,

S e'  0.4Sut
For cast aluminum alloys,
S e'  ut
0.3S
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Endurance Limit- Approximate estimate

Surface Finish Factor

Fig. Surface Finish Factor

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Endurance Limit- Approximate estimate

Size factor
The rotating beam specimen is small with 7.5 mm diameter.

The endurance limit reduces with increasing the size of the component.

For bending and torsion, the value of size factor are given in Table 5.2.

Table 5.2Size factor diameter d (mm) Kb

d  7.5 1.0
7.5 < d  50 0.85
d > 50 0.75
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Endurance Limit- Approximate estimate

Reliability factor
Reliability factor depends upon reliability requirement of Reliability
mechanical component. R (%)
Kc
50 1.00
The reliability factor is 1.0 for 50 %
reliability. 90 0.897
95 0.868
To ensure insure that more than 50 % of 99 0.814
the part will survive, the stress
99.9 0.753
amplitude on the component should be
lower than the tabulated value of 99.99 0.702
endurance limit. 99.999 0.659

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Endurance Limit- Approximate estimate

Modifying factor to account for stress

concentration
The endurance limit is reduced due to stress concentration. To apply the
effect of stress concentration, the designer can reduce the endurance limit
by K d .

1
K d
Kf

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Endurance Limit- Approximate estimate

Modifying factor to account for stress

concentration
The endurance limit Sse of a component subjected to the
fluctuating shear stresses is obtained from the endurance
limit in reversed bending ( Se ) using theories of failure.

From the maximum shear theory, Sse  0.5Se

From the distortion energy theory, S s e  0.577S e

For axial loading, (Se)a = 0.8 Se

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Endurance Limit- Approximate estimate

REVERSED STRESSES—DESIGN FOR FINITE AND INFINITE LIFE

 There are two types of problems in fatigue design:
(i)components subjected to completely reversed stresses, and
(ii)components subjected to fluctuating stresses.
 The mean stress is zero in case of completely reversed stresses. The stress distribution
consists of tensile stresses for the first half cycle and compressive stresses for the
remaining half cycle and the stress cycle passes through zero.
 In case of fluctuating stresses, there is always a mean stress, and the stresses can be
purely tensile, purely compressive or mixed depending upon the magnitude of the
mean stress. Such problems are solved with the help of the modified Goodman
diagram.
 The design problems for completely reversed stresses are further divided into two
groups:
(i)design for infinite life, and
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Endurance Limit- Approximate estimate

DESIGN FOR INFINITE LIFE

Case I: When the component is to be designed for infinite life, the endurance limit becomes
the criterion of failure.
• The amplitude stress induced in such components should be lower than the endurance limit
in order to withstand the infinite number of cycles.
•Such components are designed with the help of the following equations:

 a  Se ,  a  S se
( fs) ( fs)

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Endurance Limit- Approximate estimate

REVERSED STRESSES—DESIGN FOR INFINITE LIFE

Where a ,a are stress amplitude in the component and Se , Sse are corrected
endurance limit in reversed bending and reversing torsion respectively.

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Endurance Limit- Approximate estimate

Case II: When the component is to be REVERSED STRESSES—DESIGN FOR FINITE LIFE
designed for finite life, the S-N
curve as shown in figure can be
used.
It consist of a straight line AB drawn from (0.9Sut) at 103
cycles to (Se) at 106 cycles on a log-log paper. The design
procedure is as follows:
 Locate point A with coordinates
[3,log10(0.9Sut)] as log10 (103)=3.
 Locate point B coordinates
with
[6,log10(Se)] as log10 (106)=6.
 Join AB, which is used as a criterion of
failure for finite life problem.
 Depending upon the life N of the component, draw vertical
line passing through log10(N) on the abscissa. This line
intersects AB at point F.
 Draw a line FE parallel to the abscissa. The ordinate at the
point E, i.e. log10(Sf), gives the fatigue strength
corresponding to N cycles, which will be used for design
calculations.
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Endurance Limit- Approximate estimate

Q.1 A plate made of steel 20C8 (Sut = 440 N/mm2) in hot rolled and normalized condition is shown in Fig.
5.28. It is subjected to a completely reversed axial load of 30 kN. The notch sensitivity factor q can be taken
as 0.8 and the expected reliability is 90%. The size factor is 0.85. The factor of safety is 2. Determine the
plate thickness for infinite life.

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Endurance Limit- Approximate estimate

Q.1 A plate made of steel 20C8 (Sut = 440 N/mm2) in hot rolled and normalized condition is shown in Fig.
5.28. It is subjected to a completely reversed axial load of 30 kN. The notch sensitivity factor q can be taken
as 0.8 and the expected reliability is 90%. The size factor is 0.85. The factor of safety is 2. Determine the
plate thickness for infinite life.

diameter d Kb
(mm)
d  7.5 1.0
7.5 < d  50 0.85
d > 50 0.75

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Endurance Limit- Approximate estimate

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Endurance Limit- Approximate estimate

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Endurance Limit- Approximate estimate

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Endurance Limit- Approximate estimate

Q2.A rod of a linkage mechanism made of steel 40Cr1(Sut​=550N/mm2) is subjected to a completely reversed
axial load of 100 kN. The rod is machined on a lathe and the expected reliability is 95%. There is no stress
concentration. Determine the diameter of the rod using a factor of safety of 2 for an infinite life condition.

diameter d Kb
(mm)
d  7.5 1.0
7.5 < d  50 0.85
d > 50 0.75

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Endurance Limit- Approximate estimate

Q2.A rod of a linkage mechanism made of steel 40Cr1(Sut​=550N/mm2) is subjected to a completely reversed
axial load of 100 kN. The rod is machined on a lathe and the expected reliability is 95%. There is no stress
concentration. Determine the diameter of the rod using a factor of safety of 2 for an infinite life condition.

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Endurance Limit- Approximate estimate

Q.3 A component machined from a plate made of steel 45C8 (Sut = 630 N/mm2) is shown in Fig. 5.29. It is
subjected to a completely reversed axial force of 50 kN. The expected reliability is 90% and the factor of
safety is 2. The size factor is 0.85. Determine the plate thickness t for infi nite life, if the notch sensitivity
factor is 0.8

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Endurance Limit- Approximate estimate

Q.3 A component machined from a plate made of steel 45C8 (Sut = 630 N/mm2) is shown in Fig. 5.29. It is
subjected to a completely reversed axial force of 50 kN. The expected reliability is 90% and the factor of
safety is 2. The size factor is 0.85. Determine the plate thickness t for infi nite life, if the notch sensitivity
factor is 0.8

diameter d Kb
(mm)
d  7.5 1.0
7.5 < d  50 0.85
d > 50 0.75

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Endurance Limit- Approximate estimate

Q.3 A component machined from a plate made of steel 45C8 (Sut = 630 N/mm2) is shown in Fig. 5.29. It is
subjected to a completely reversed axial force of 50 kN. The expected reliability is 90% and the factor of
safety is 2. The size factor is 0.85. Determine the plate thickness t for infi nite life, if the notch sensitivity
factor is 0.8

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Endurance Limit- Approximate estimate

Q.3 A component machined from a plate made of steel 45C8 (Sut = 630 N/mm2) is shown in Fig. 5.29. It is
subjected to a completely reversed axial force of 50 kN. The expected reliability is 90% and the factor of
safety is 2. The size factor is 0.85. Determine the plate thickness t for infi nite life, if the notch sensitivity
factor is 0.8

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Endurance Limit- Approximate estimate

Q.2 A rotating bar made of steel 45C8 (Sut = 630 N/mm2) is subjected to a completely reversed bending
stress. The corrected endurance limit of the bar is 315 N/mm2. Calculate the fatigue strength of the bar
for a life of 90,000 cycles.

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Endurance Limit- Approximate estimate

Q.2 A rotating bar made of steel 45C8 (Sut = 630 N/mm2) is subjected to a completely reversed bending
stress. The corrected endurance limit of the bar is 315 N/mm2. Calculate the fatigue strength of the bar
for a life of 90,000 cycles.

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Endurance Limit- Approximate estimate

5. A forged steel bar, 50 mm in diameter, is subjected to a reversed bending stress of 250 N/mm². The bar is
made of steel 40C8 Sut​=600N/mm2). Calculate the life of the bar for a reliability of 90%

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Endurance Limit- Approximate estimate

diameter d Kb
(mm)
d  7.5 1.0
7.5 < d  50 0.85
d > 50 0.75

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Endurance Limit- Approximate estimate

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Endurance Limit- Approximate estimate

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Endurance Limit- Approximate estimate

diameter d Kb
(mm)
d  7.5 1.0
7.5 < d  50 0.85
d > 50 0.75

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Endurance Limit- Approximate estimate

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Endurance Limit- Approximate estimate

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Endurance Limit- Approximate estimate

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Endurance Limit- Approximate estimate

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Fluctuating Stress
Hawaii, Aloha Flight 243, a Boeing 737, an upper part of the plane's cabin
area rips off in mid-flight. Metal fatigue was the cause of the failure.

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