18IT902 - DISTRIBUTED SYSTEMS

Module :2
Module Name : Processes and Synchronization
Topic : Election algorithms
Faculty : Dr.K.Sasi Kala Rani
 Topics Covered
• Need for a Coordinator
• Election algorithms
• Traditional election algorithms
– Bully algorithm
– Ring algorithm
• Wireless election algorithms
 Need for a Coordinator
• Many algorithms used in distributed systems require a
coordinator
– For example, see the centralized mutual exclusion algorithm.
• In general, all processes in the distributed system are equally
suitable for the role
• Election algorithms are designed to choose a coordinator.
 Election Algorithms

• Any process can serve as coordinator

• Any process can “call an election” (initiate the algorithm to
choose a new coordinator).
– There is no harm (other than extra message traffic) in
having multiple concurrent elections.
• Elections may be needed when the system is initialized, or if
the coordinator crashes or retires.
 Assumptions
• Every process/site has a unique ID; e.g.
– the network address
– a process number
• Every process in the system should know the values in the set
of ID numbers, although not which processors are up or down.
• The process with the highest ID number will be the new
coordinator.
 Requirements
• When the election algorithm terminates a single process has
been selected and every process knows its identity.
• Formalize: every process pi has a variable ei to hold the
coordinator’s process number.
– ∀i, ei = undefined or ei = P, where P is the non-crashed
process with highest id
– All processes (that have not crashed) eventually set ei = P.
 The Bully Algorithm - Overview
When any process notices that the coordinator is no longer
responding to requests, it initiates an election.
A process, P, holds an election as follows:
• P sends an ELECTION message to all processes with higher
numbers.
• If no one responds, P wins the election and becomes
coordinator.
• If one of the higher-ups answers, it takes over. P's job is done.
• When a crashed process reboots, it holds an election. If it is now
the highest-numbered live process, it will win.
 1 5 1
2 2 5
election 6 OK
4 6
election 4 OK
election
0 3 0 3
7 7

• Process 4 holds an election.

• Processes 5 and 6 respond. telling 4 to stop.
• The process q now calls an election (if it has not already done so).
• Repeat until no higher-level process responds. The last process
to call an election “wins” the election.
• The winner sends a message to other processes announcing itself
as the new coordinator.
• Now 5 and 6 each hold an election.
1 5
• Process 6 tells 5 to stop. 2
• Process 6 wins and tells everyone. election
• If 7 comes back on line, it will call an 4 6
election
election election
0 3
7

1 1
2 5 5
OK 2
4 6
4 coordinator 6
0 3 0 3
7 7
 1 5 1 1 5
2 2 5 2
election 6 OK election
4 6 4 6
election 4 OK election
election election
0 3 0 3 0 3
7 7 7

1 1
2 5 5
OK 2
4 6
4 coordinator 6
0 3 0 3
7 7
 Analysis
• Works best if communication in the system has bounded
latency so processes can determine that a process has failed
by knowing the upper bound (UB) on message transmission
time (T) and message processing time (M).
– UB = 2 * T + M
• However, if a process calls an election when the coordinator
is still active, the coordinator will win the election.
 A Ring Algorithm - Overview
• The ring algorithm assumes that the processes are arranged in
a logical ring and each process is knows the order of the ring of
processes.
• Processes are able to “skip” faulty systems: instead of sending
to process j, send to j + 1.
• Faulty systems are those that don’t respond in a fixed amount
of time.
 A Ring Algorithm
• P thinks the coordinator has crashed; builds an ELECTION
message which contains its own ID number.
• Sends to first live successor
• Each process adds its own number and forwards to next.
• OK to have two elections at once.
 Example
• 2 and 5, discover simultaneously that the previous coordinator,
process 7, has crashed.
• Each of these builds an ELECTION message and each of them
starts circulating its message, independent of the other one.
• Eventually, both messages will go all the way around, and both 2
and 5 will convert them into COORDINATOR messages, with
exactly the same members and in the same order.
• When both have gone around again, both will be removed.
• It does no harm to have extra messages circulating; at worst it
consumes a little bandwidth, but this not considered wasteful.
 Ring Algorithm - Details
• When the message returns to p, it sees its own process ID in
the list and knows that the circuit is complete.
• P circulates a COORDINATOR message with the new high
number.
• Here, both 2 and 5 elect 6:
[5,6,0,1,2,3,4]
[2,3,4,5,6,0,1]
 Elections in Wireless Environments
• Traditional algorithms aren’t appropriate.
– Can’t assume reliable message passing or stable network
configuration
• This discussion focuses on ad hoc wireless networks but
ignores node mobility.
– Nodes connect directly, no common access point,
connection is short term
– Often used in multiplayer gaming, on-the-fly file transfers,
etc.
 Assumptions
• Wireless algorithms try to find the best node to be coordinator;
traditional algorithms are satisfied with any node.
• Any node (the source) can initiate an election by sending an
ELECTION message to its neighbors – nodes within range.
• When a node receives its first ELECTION message the sender
becomes its parent node.
 Example

• Initial network - Nodes have been labeled a to j, along with their

capacity. Fig. (a).
• Node a initiates an election by broadcasting an ELECTION
message to nodes b and j, Fig. (b).
• The build-tree phase - Fig. (b) to Fig. (e)
• After that step, ELECTION messages are propagated to all nodes,
ending with the situation shown in Fig. e, where we have omitted
the last broadcast by nodes f and i:
• From there on, each node reports to its parent the node with the
best capacity, as shown in Fig.(f).
 Figure 6-22.

• Node a is the source.

Messages have a unique ID to manage possible concurrent
elections
When a node R receives its first election message, it designates
the source Q as its parent, and forwards the message to all
neighbors except Q.
When R receives an election message from a non-parent, it just
acknowledges the message
 • Figure 6-22. (e) The build-tree phase.
(f) Reporting of best node to source.

If R’s neighbors have parents, R is a leaf; otherwise it waits for its

children to forward the message to their neighbors.
When R has collected acks from all its neighbors, it acknowledges
the message from Q.
Acknowledgements flow back up the tree to the original source.
 Example
• For example, when node g receives the acknowledgments from its
children e and h, it will notice that h is the best node, propagating
[h, 8] to its own parent, node b.
• In the end, the source will note that h is the best leader and will
broadcast this information to all other nodes.
• At each stage the “most eligible” or “best” node will be passed
along from child to parent.
• Once the source node has received all the replies, it is in a
position to choose the new coordinator.
• When the selection is made, it is broadcast to all nodes in the
network.
 Wireless Elections
• If more than one election is called (multiple source nodes), a node
should participate in only one.
• Election messages are tagged with a process id.
• If a node has chosen a parent but gets an election message from
a higher numbered node, it drops out of the current election and
adopts the high numbered node as its parent. This ensures only
one election makes a choice.
 Summary
• Election algorithms are designed to choose a coordinator
• Elections may be needed when the system is initialized, or if the
coordinator crashes or retires.
• High-numbered processes “bully” low-numbered processes out
of the election, until only one process remains.
• The ring algorithm assumes that the processes are arranged in
a logical ring and each process is knows the order of the ring of
processes.
 Video and Assessment Links

Lecture Video 1 Lecture Video 2