The Nature of Light and the

Laws of Geometric Optics

Enhancement Science
Introduction to Light
Light is basic to almost all life on
Earth.
Light is a form of electromagnetic
radiation.
Light represents energy transfer
from the source to the observer.
Introduction to Light
Many phenomena depend on the properties of light.
 Seeing a TV or computer monitor
 Blue sky, colors at sunset and sunrise
 Images in mirrors
 Eyeglasses and contacts
 Rainbows
 Many others
 Light and Optics

There are two historical models for the nature of light.

The speed of light has been measured in many ways.
Reflection and refraction are the fundamental phenomena in ray
(geometric) optics.
Internal reflection is the basis for fiber optics.
The Nature of Light
Before the beginning of the nineteenth century, light was
considered to be a stream of particles.
The particles were either emitted by the object being viewed
or emanated from the eyes of the viewer.
Newton was the chief architect of the particle theory of light.
He believed the particles left the object and stimulated the
sense of sight upon entering the eyes.
Nature of Light – Alternative View
Christian Huygens argued that light might be some sort of
a wave motion.
Thomas Young (in 1801) provided the first clear
demonstration of the wave nature of light.
 He showed that light rays interfere with each other.
 Such behavior could not be explained by particles.
 Christian Huygens
1629 – 1695
Best known for contributions to fields of
optics and dynamics
He thought light was a type of vibratory
motion.
It spread out and produced the sensation
of light when it hit the eye.
He deduced the laws of reflection and
refraction.
He explained double refraction.
Confirmation of Wave Nature
During the 19th century, other developments led to the general
acceptance of the wave theory of light.
Thomas Young provided evidence that light rays interfere with one
another according to the principle of superposition. This behavior
could not be explained by a particle theory.
Maxwell asserted that light was a form of high-frequency
electromagnetic wave.
Hertz confirmed Maxwell’s predictions.
Particle Nature
Some experiments could not be explained by the wave
model of light.
The photoelectric effect was a major phenomenon not
explained by waves.
 When light strikes a metal surface, electrons are
sometimes ejected from the surface.
 The kinetic energy of the ejected electron is
independent of the frequency of the light.
Particle Nature
 Einstein (in 1905) proposed an explanation of the
photoelectric effect that used the idea of quantization.
 The quantization model assumes that the energy of a light
wave is present in particles called photons.
 E = hƒ
 h is Planck’s Constant and = 6.63 x 10-34 J.s
Dual Nature of Light
In view of these developments, light must be regarded as
having a dual nature.
Light exhibits the characteristics of a wave in some
situations and the characteristics of a particle in other
situations.
Measurements of the Speed of Light
Since light travels at a very high speed, early attempts to
measure its speed were unsuccessful.
 Remember c = 3.00 x 108 meters per second
Galileo tried by using two observers separated by about
10 km.
 The reaction time of the observers was more than the
transit time of the light.
 Measurement of the Speed of Light –
Roemer’s Method
In 1675 Ole Roemer used astronomical
observations to estimate the speed of light.
He used the period of revolution of Io, a moon
of Jupiter, as Jupiter revolved around the sun.
The angle through which Jupiter moves during
a 90° movement of the Earth was calculated.
Roemer’s Method, continued
The periods of revolution were longer when the Earth was
receding from Jupiter.
 Shorter when the Earth was approaching
Using Roemer’s data, Huygens estimated the lower limit
of the speed of light to be 2.3 x 108 meters per second. This
was important because it demonstrated that light has a
finite speed as well as giving an estimate of that speed.
Measurements of the Speed of Light –
Fizeau’s Method
This was the first successful method for measuring the
speed of light by means of a purely terrestrial technique.
It was developed in 1849 by Armand Fizeau.
He used a rotating toothed wheel.
The distance between the wheel (considered to be the
source) and a mirror was known.
 Fizeau’s Method, continued
d is the distance between the wheel and
the mirror.
Δt is the time for one round trip.
Then c = 2d / Δt
Fizeau found a value of c = 3.1
x 108 m/s.
 Speed of light in a vacuum =
299,792,458 meters per second
The Ray Approximation in Ray Optics

Ray optics (sometimes called geometric optics) involves the

study of the propagation of light.
It uses the assumption that light travels in a straight – line
path in a uniform medium and changes its direction when it
meets the surface of a different medium or if the optical
properties of the medium are nonuniform.
The ray approximation is used to represent beams of light.
Ray Approximation
The rays are straight lines
perpendicular to the wave fronts.
With the ray approximation, we
assume that a wave moving through
a medium travels in a straight line in
the direction of its rays.
Ray Approximation, continued
If a wave meets a barrier, with λ<<d, the
wave emerging from the opening
continues to move in a straight line.
 d is the diameter of the opening.
 There may be some small edge
effects.
This approximation is good for the study
of mirrors, lenses, prisms, etc.
 Reflection of Light
A ray of light, the incident ray, travels in a medium.
When it encounters a boundary with a second medium, part of the
incident ray is reflected back into the first medium.
 This means it is directed backward into the first medium.
For light waves traveling in three-dimensional space, the reflected
light can be in directions different from the direction of the incident
rays.
 Specular Reflection
Specular reflection is
reflection from a smooth
surface.
The reflected rays are
parallel to each other.
All reflection in this text is
assumed to be specular.
 Diffuse Reflection
Diffuse reflection is reflection from a
rough surface.
The reflected rays travel in a variety
of directions.
A surface behaves as a smooth
surface as long as the surface
variations are much smaller than the
wavelength of the light.
 Law of Reflection
The normal is a line perpendicular
to the surface.
 It is at the point where the
incident ray strikes the surface.
The incident ray makes an angle of
θ1 with the normal.
The reflected ray makes an angle of
θ1’ with the normal.
Law of Reflection, continued
The angle of reflection is equal to the angle of
incidence.
θ1’= θ1
 This relationship is called the Law of
Reflection.
The incident ray, the reflected ray and the normal
are all in the same plane.
 Law of Reflection, continued
Because this situation happens often, an analysis model, wave under
reflection, is identified.
Notation note:
 The subscript 1 refers to parameters for the light in the first
medium.
 If light travels in another medium, the subscript 2 will be associated
with the new medium.
Since reflection of waves is a common phenomena, we identify an
analysis model for this situation, the wave under reflection analysis model.
 Multiple Reflections
The incident ray strikes the first mirror.
The reflected ray is directed toward the
second mirror.
There is a second reflection from the second
mirror.
Apply the Law of Reflection and some
geometry to determine information about the
rays.
Retroreflection
Assume the angle between two mirrors is 90 o .
The reflected beam returns to the source parallel to its
original path.
This phenomenon is called retroreflection.
Applications include:
 Measuring the distance to the Moon
 Automobile taillights
 Traffic signs
Refraction of Light
When a ray of light traveling through a transparent medium
encounters a boundary leading into another transparent
medium, part of the energy is reflected and part enters the
second medium.
The ray that enters the second medium changes its direction
of propagation at the boundary.
 This bending of the ray is called refraction.
 Refraction, continued
The incident ray, the reflected ray, the refracted ray, and the
normal all lie on the same plane.
The angle of refraction depends upon the material and the
angle of incidence.
sin   𝜽 𝟐 𝒗 𝟐
=
sin   𝜽 𝟏 𝒗 𝟏
 v1 is the speed of the light in the first medium and v 2 is
its speed in the second.
Refraction of Light, final
The path of the light through the
refracting surface is reversible.
 For example, a ray travels
from A to B.
 If the ray originated at B, it
would follow the line AB to
reach point A.
 Following the Reflected and Refracted Rays
Ray  is the incident ray.
Ray  is the reflected ray.
Ray  is refracted into the lucite.
Ray  is internally reflected in the
lucite.
Ray  is refracted as it enters the
air from the lucite.
Refraction Details, 1
Light may refract
into a material
where its speed is
lower.
The angle of
refraction is less
than the angle of
incidence.
 The ray bends
toward the
normal.
 Refraction Details, 2
Light may refract into a
material where its speed is
higher.
The angle of refraction is
greater than the angle of
incidence.
 The ray bends away
from the normal.
 Light in a Medium
The light enters from the left.
The light may encounter an electron.
The electron may absorb the light,
oscillate, and reradiate the light.
The absorption and radiation cause
the average speed of the light moving
through the material to decrease.
The Index of Refraction
The speed of light in any material is less than its speed in
vacuum.
The index of refraction, n, of a medium can be defined
as

speed of light in 𝐚 vacuum 𝐜

𝐧≡ ≡
speed of light in 𝐚 medium 𝐯
Index of Refraction, continued

For a vacuum, n = 1
 We assume n = 1 for air also
For other media, n > 1
n is a dimensionless number greater than unity.
 n is not necessarily an integer.
Some Indices of Refraction
Frequency Between Media
As light travels from one medium to
another, its frequency does not change.
 Both the wave speed and the
wavelength do change.
 The wavefronts do not pile up, nor
are they created or destroyed at the
boundary, so ƒ must stay the same.
 Index of Refraction (extended)
The frequency stays the same as the wave travels from one medium to the other.
 v = ƒλ ; ƒ1 = ƒ2 but v1  v2 so λ1  λ2
The ratio of the indices of refraction of the two media can be expressed as various
ratios. 𝐜
𝛌𝟏 𝐯𝟏 𝐧𝟏 𝐧𝟐
= = =
𝛌𝟐 𝐯𝟐 𝐜 𝐧𝟏
The index of refraction is inversely proportional 𝐧
to 𝟐the wave speed.
 As the wave speed decreases, the index of refraction increases.
 The higher the index of refraction, the more it slows downs the light wave
speed.
More About Index of Refraction
The previous relationship can be simplified to compare
wavelengths and indices: λ1n1 = λ2n2
In air, n1 = 1 and the index of refraction of the material can
be defined in terms of the wavelengths.

𝒏= (
𝝀 𝝀 in vacuum
𝝀𝒏 𝝀 in a   medium )
 Snell’s Law of Refraction
n1 sin θ1 = n2 sin θ2
 θ1 is the angle of incidence
 θ2 is the angle of refraction
The experimental discovery of this relationship is usually credited to
Willebrord Snell and is therefore known as Snell’s law of refraction.
Refraction is a commonplace occurrence, so identify an analysis
model as a wave under refraction.
Prism
A ray of single-wavelength
light incident on the prism
will emerge at angle d from
its original direction of
travel.
 d is called the angle of
deviation.
 F is the apex angle.
 Huygens’s Principle
Huygens assumed that light is a form of wave motion rather than a stream of
particles.
Huygens’s Principle is a geometric construction for determining the position of a
new wave at some point based on the knowledge of the wave front that preceded
it.
All points on a given wave front are taken as point sources for the production of
spherical secondary waves, called wavelets, which propagate outward through a
medium with speeds characteristic of waves in that medium.
After some time has passed, the new position of the wave front is the surface
tangent to the wavelets.
 Huygens’s Construction for a Plane Wave
At t = 0, the wave front is
indicated by the plane AA.’
The points are representative
sources for the wavelets.
After the wavelets have moved a
distance cΔt, a new plane BB’ can
be drawn tangent to the wavefronts.
 Huygens’s Construction for a Spherical Wave

The inner arc represents part of

the spherical wave.
The points are representative
points where wavelets are
propagated.
The new wavefront is tangent at
each point to the wavelet.
 Huygens’s Principle and the
Law of Reflection
The law of reflection can be derived from
Huygens’s principle.
AB is a plane wave front of incident light.
 The wave at A sends out a wavelet
centered on A toward D.
 The wave at B sends out a wavelet
centered on B toward C.
AD = BC = c Δt
Huygens’s Principle and the Law of Reflection,
continued
Triangle ABC is congruent to triangle ADC.
cos g = BC / AC
cos g’ = AD / AC
Therefore, cos g = cos g’ and g = g’
This gives θ1 = θ1’
This is the law of reflection.
Huygens’s Principle and the Law of Refraction

Ray 1 strikes the surface and at a

time interval Δt later, ray 2 strikes
the surface.
During this time interval, the
wave at A sends out a wavelet,
centered at A, toward D.
Huygens’s Principle and the Law of Refraction,
continued
The wave at B sends out a wavelet, centered at B, toward
C.
The two wavelets travel in different media, therefore their
radii are different.
From triangles ABC and ADC, we find
𝐵𝐶 𝑣1 Δ 𝑡 𝐴𝐷 𝑣2 Δ 𝑡
sin   𝜃 1= = and sin   𝜃 2= =
𝐴𝐶 𝐴𝐶 𝐴𝐶 𝐴𝐶
Huygens’s Principle and the Law of Refraction, final

The preceding equation can be simplified to

sin   𝜃1 𝑣 1
=
sin   𝜃2 𝑣 2
This is Snell’s law of refraction.
Dispersion
For a given material, the index of refraction varies with the
wavelength of the light passing through the material.
This dependence of n on λ is called dispersion.
Snell’s law indicates light of different wavelengths is bent
at different angles when incident on a refracting material.
Variation of Index of Refraction with Wavelength

The index of refraction for a

material generally decreases
with increasing wavelength.
Violet light bends more than
red light when passing into a
refracting material.
Refraction in a Prism
Since all the colors have different
angles of deviation, white light will
spread out into a spectrum.
 Violet deviates the most.
 Red deviates the least.
 The remaining colors are in
between.
The Rainbow
A ray of light strikes a drop of water in the atmosphere.
It undergoes both reflection and refraction.
 First refraction at the front of the drop
 Violet light will deviate the most.
 Red light will deviate the least.
 The Rainbow, continued
At the back surface the light is reflected.
It is refracted again as it returns to the front
surface and moves into the air.
The rays leave the drop at various angles.
 The angle between the white light and the
most intense violet ray is 40°.
 The angle between the white light and the
most intense red ray is 42°.
Observing the Rainbow
If a raindrop high in the sky is
observed, the red ray is seen.
A drop lower in the sky would
direct violet light to the observer.
The other colors of the spectra lie
in between the red and the violet.
 Double Rainbow
The secondary rainbow is fainter
than the primary.
The colors are reversed.
The secondary rainbow arises from
light that makes two reflections from
the interior surface before exiting the
raindrop.
Higher-order rainbows are possible,
but their intensity is low.
Total Internal Reflection

A phenomenon called total internal reflection can

occur when light is directed from a medium having
a given index of refraction toward one having a
lower index of refraction.
Possible Beam Directions
Possible directions of the beam are
indicated by rays numbered 1 through 5.
The refracted rays are bent away from
the normal since n1 > n2.
Critical Angle
There is a particular angle of
incidence that will result in an angle of
refraction of 90°.
 This angle of incidence is called
the critical angle, θC.
𝒏𝟐
sin   𝜽 𝑪 = (for 𝒏𝟏>𝒏𝟐)
𝒏𝟏
Critical Angle, continued
For angles of incidence greater than the critical angle, the
beam is entirely reflected at the boundary.
 This ray obeys the law of reflection at the boundary.
Total internal reflection occurs only when light is directed
from a medium of a given index of refraction toward a
medium of lower index of refraction.
 Fiber Optics
An application of internal reflection
Plastic or glass rods are used to “pipe”
light from one place to another.
Applications include:
 Medical examination of internal
organs
 Telecommunications
 Construction of an Optical Fiber

The transparent core is surrounded

by cladding.
 The cladding has a lower n
than the core.
 This allows the light in the core
to experience total internal
reflection.
The combination is surrounded by
the jacket.
Fiber Optics, continued
A flexible light pipe is called an
optical fiber.
A bundle of parallel fibers which is
used to construct an optical
transmission line.