CHEMICAL PROCESS

CALCULATIONS
LECTURE 1.INTRODUCTION
TO ENGINEERING
CALCULATIONS
Units and Dimensions

■ Dimensions are the general expression of a characteristic of

measurement such as length (L), time (θ), mass (M), temperature
(T), etc.

■ Units are the means of explicitly expressing dimensions. Example.

Feet and meter are units of the dimension, length.
Fundamental and Derived Dimensions

■ A fundamental dimension is one that can be measured

independently and are sufficient to describe most physical quantities
such as length (L), mass (M), time (θ), and temperature (T).
■ A derived dimension is one that can be developed in terms of the
fundamental dimensions. The unit of a derived dimension can be
expressed as a combination of the units of a fundamental dimension.
Example: Density is defined as mass per unit volume. A unit of density
is kilogram per cubic meter (kg/m3)
Fundamental and derived dimensions
Quantity Definition Dimensio
n
Area Extent of surface L2
Volume Extent of space L3
Density Mass in a unit volume M/L3
Force Push or pull; mass times ML/θ2
acceleration
Velocity Rate of change in displacement L/θ
Acceleration Rate of change in velocity L/θ2
Viscosity Resistance to flow M/L-θ
Systems of Units

■ Système Internale d’Unitès or SI system is the most

commonly used system of units in the engineering and
scientific community; also called the MKS system
■ CGS system is similar to the MKS system but uses
centimeters, gram, and second as units of length, mass, and
time, respectively.
■ The American Engineering System (AES) or English system
uses feet, pound, and seconds as units of length, mass, and time,
respectively
SI Base Units
Quantity Unit Name Symbol
Length meter m
Mass kilogram kg
Time second s
Electric current ampere A
Temperature kelvin K
Amount of substance mole mol
Luminous intensity candela cd
SI Derived Units
Quantity Unit Name Symbol
Area square meter m2
Volume cubic meter m3
Velocity meter per second m/s
Acceleration meter per second m/s2
squared
Density kilogram per cubic meter kg/m3
Kinematic viscosity square meter per second m2/s
Molar concentration mole per cubic meter mol/m3
SI Derived Units
Quantity Unit Name Symbol In SI base units
Force Newton N kg-m/s2
Pressure Pascal Pa kg/m-s2
Work/energy Joule J kg-m2/s2
Power Watt W kg-m2/s3
Frequency Hertz Hz 1/s
Electric Coulomb C A/s
charge
SI Prefixes
Factor Prefix Symbol Factor Prefix Symbol
1018 exa E 10-1 deci d
1015 peta P 10-2 centi c
1012 tera T 10-3 milli m
109 giga G 10-6 micro μ
106 mega M 10-9 nano n
103 kilo k 10-12 picto p
102 hecto h 10-15 femto f
101 deka da 10-18 atto a
English System Base Units

Quantity Unit Name Symbol

Length foot, inch ft, in
Mass pound (mass) lbm
Time second, hour s, hr
Temperature degree Rankine, o
R, oF
degree Fahrenheit
Amount of substance pound mole lbmol
English System Derived Units
Quantity Unit Name Symbol
Force pound (force) lbf
Energy/work foot pound (force) ft-lbf
Heat British thermal unit Btu
Density pound (mass) per cubic foot lbm/ft3
Velocity feet per second ft/s
Acceleration feet per second squared ft/s2
Pressure pound (force) per square lbf/in2
inch
Unit Conversion

■  

Conversion factor
Example 1

■  
Example 2
■  
Mass and Force
■  
Example
■  
Mass to Mole Conversion

■  
Example

■  
Dimensional Homogeneity

■ A basic principle exists that equations must be dimensionally

homogenous.
■ Each term in an equation must have the same net dimensions and
units as every other term to which it is added or subtracted.
■ The dimensions and units of the left side of an equation should be
the same as that of the right side.
Example 1. Verifying dimensional
homogeneity
■  
■  
Example 2. Conversion of empirical
equations
■  
■  
■  
Process Data Representation and
Analysis
■ The effects of an independent variable x to a dependent variable y
can be determined from a calibration experiment where values of y
are measured for known values of x.
■ From the calibration data, one can perform:
(1) Interpolation – estimating the value of y for a value of x within the
calibration
(2) Extrapolation – estimating the value of y for a value of x outside
the range of the calibration
Curve fitting

■ Curve fitting is the process of fitting a calibration data to a curve defined by a

known mathematical function.

■ Linear curve fitting is the process of fitting a calibration data to a straight line
defined as:
y = mx + b
where y is the dependent variable and x is the independent variable; m and b are the
slope and y-intercept of the linear curve fit, respectively. The values of m and b are
determined from the process of linear regression.
Example
■ The following table shows the specific heat of ethane as a function of
temperature:
Temperature pC 38 66 93 121 149 204
Specific heat cal/g-oC 0.43 0.46 0.49 0.51 0.55 0.61

Given that the variation is linear, find the equation that represents the
data.
 0.7

0.6
f(x) = 0.00107900112872081 x + 0.387665040438056
Specific heat (cal/g-oC) R² = 0.996073907096062
0.5

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

0
20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220
Temperature oC
Linear curve fitting of nonlinear data

■ Certain nonlinear data can be fitted to a linear curve by taking

variables that would make the model linear in form.
Example:
(1) y = ax2 + b can be modeled by plotting y versus x2.
(2) (1/y) = (a/x) + b can be modelled by plotting (1/y) versus (1/x).
Linear curve fitting of nonlinear data

■  
Example

■  

T (oC) 10 20 40 80

14.76 20.14 27.73 38.47

 45

40
f(x) = 4.10016360722968 x + 1.79824134941218
35 R² = 0.999999854781546
30

25
𝑚 ̇ (g/s)

20

15

10

0
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
T1/2 (oC)1/2
■  
Processes and Process Variables

■ A process refers to any operation or series of operations by which a

particular objective is accomplished.

Input/Feed Output/Product
Process unit
Processes and Process Variables

■ A process variable is any parameter involved in a process that is

being measured:
(1) Temperature
(2) Pressure
(3) Flow rate
(4) Composition
Temperature

■ Temperature is the measure of the average kinetic energy of the particles that
make up an object. In simple terms, it is the “hotness” or “coldness” of a body.
■ Instruments for measurement of temperature:
(1) Resistance thermometer: based on electrical resistance of a conductor
(2) Thermocouple: based on voltage at the junction of two dissimilar metals
(3) Pyrometer: based on the spectra of emitted radiation
(4) Thermometer: based on the volume of a fixed mass of fluid
Temperature Scales
■ A temperature scale is defined by arbitrarily assigning numerical
values to two reproducibly measurable temperatures.
Units conversions of temperature
■  
Temperature intervals

■  
Example

■  
Pressure

■ Pressure is the normal force acting on a unit area of surface.

■ The SI unit of pressure is N/m2 or pascal (Pa).

■ The commonly used AES unit of pressure is lbf/in2 (psi).

Units of Pressure
■ The standard atmospheric pressure (1 atm) is the normal
atmospheric air pressure at sea level and 45o latitude.
Pressure Units Conversion factor
bar 1.01325 bar = 1 atm
kPa 101.325 kPa = 1 atm
Torr 760 Torr = 1 atm
mmHg 760 mmHg = 1 atm
in Hg 29.92 in Hg = 1 atm
ft H2O 33.94 ft H2O = 1 atm
in H2O 407 in H2O = 1 atm
psi 14.7 psi = 1 atm
Hydrostatic pressure

■  
P0

h
Example

■  
Fluid head

■  
P0 = 0

h
Example

■  
Absolute pressure, gage pressure, and
vacuum pressure
■  
Absolute pressure, gage pressure, and
vacuum pressure
Pressure measurement

■ Classification of pressure-measurement devices:

(1) Elastic element methods – Bourdon gauge, bellows or diaphragms
(2) Liquid-column methods – manometers
(3) Electrical methods – strain gauges, piezoelectric transducers
Bourdon gauge
■ Most common mechanical device for
pressure measurement; primarily used to
pressure moderate to high pressures
■ Open end of tube is exposed to fluid whose
pressure is to be measured. As pressure
increases, tube straightens causing the
pointer attached to the tube to rotate.
■ Reads the gauge pressure of a fluid
Manometer

■ A manometer is a tube partially filled with a fluid

of known density (the manometer fluid).
Manometers are typically used for pressures below
3 atm.
■ The ends of manometer are exposed to different
pressures. The field level drops in the high-
pressure arm and rises in the low pressure arm. The
difference in the liquid levels give the pressure
difference on the two ends.
Manometer
Manometer

■ An open-end manometer is a manometer with one end exposed to a

fluid whose pressure is to be measured and the other is open to the
atmosphere.
■ A differential manometer is used to measure the pressure
difference between two points in a process line.
■ A sealed-end manometer is exposed to near-vacuum at one end and
to the fluid whose pressure is to be measured at the other end. If
open end is exposed to the atmosphere, the device is called a
barometer.
Manometer

■  
 Example
■  
■  
Density and specific volume

■ Density is the mass per unit volume of a substance.

■ The specific volume of a substance is the volume occupied by a unit
mass of a substance; it is the inverse of density
■ Solid and liquid densities are essentially independent of pressure and
only vary slightly with temperature.
■ Gas density is a strong function of both temperature and pressure.
Specific gravity
■  
Specific gravity scales
■  
Specific gravity scales
■  
Specific gravity scales

■  
Specific gravity scales
■  

■  
Example 1

■  

■  
Example 2

■  
■  
Composition of Solids, Liquids, and Gases

■  
Composition of Solids, Liquids, and Gases

■  
Composition of Solids, Liquids, and Gases

■  
Composition of Solids, Liquids, and Gases
■  
Composition of Solids, Liquids, and Gases

■ Molarity: defined as the number of moles of the solute per liter of the
solution

■ Molality: defined as the number of moles of solute per kilogram of

solvent
Example

■ An aqueous solution of potassium carbonate contains 50 wt% of the

salt. The specific gravity of the solution is 1.53. Determine the
following: (MW: K = 39.10, C = 12.01, O = 16.00)
a) Mole percent of potassium carbonate in the solution
b) Volume percent of water assuming density of water is 1000 kg/m3
and there is no volume change in mixing
c) Molarity of the solution
d) Molality of the solution
Flow rates
■  
Example
■ A certain process needs 600 kg of hot air per hour at 120oC. To
accomplish this, air at 30oC passes through a heat exchanger. The
inlet pipe is 20 cm in diameter while the outlet pipe is 30 cm. The
heat exchanger consists of 100 tubes (each 2.5 cm in diameter)
through which the air passes and is heated by the steam condensing
outside the tubes. Calculate the volumetric flow rate, flow velocity,
and mass velocity at:
a) The 20-cm diameter pipe
b) The end of the heat exchanger pipes where air goes out
c) The 30-cm diameter pipe
Data: ρair(30oC) = 1.161 kg/m3, ρair(120oC) = 0.895 kg/m3
Given
mass rate 600kg 1h 0.166667kg density 1.161kg
h 3600s s 30 deg C m3

a 20cm dia 1m 0.2m    

100cm
Area 0.031416m2

Volumetric Flow Rate 0.166667 0.143554m3

1.161   s

Flow Velocity 0.166667 4.569479m

1.161 0.031416  s

Mass Velocity 0.166667 5.305165kg  

0.031416   m2 s
Given
mass rate 600kg 1h 0.166667 kg density 1.161 kg
h 3600 s s 30 deg C m3

b 2.5cm dia 1m 0.025 m for 100 tubes

100cm
Area 0.000491m2 0.049087 m2 for 100 tubes

Volumetric Flow Rate 0.166667 0.143554m3 0.001436 m3 per tube

1.161   s   s  

Flow Velocity 0.166667 2.924466m 0.029245 m per tube

1.161 0.049087   s   s  

Mass Velocity 0.166667 3.395305kg   0.033953 kg per tube

0.049087   m2 s   m2 s
c 30cm dia 1m 0.3m    
100cm
Area 0.070686m2

Volumetric Flow
Rate 0.166667 0.18622m3
0.895   s

Flow Velocity 0.166667 2.63447m

0.895 0.070686  s

Mass Velocity 0.166667 2.357851kg  

0.070686   m2 s
Classification of processes according to
operating conditions
■ Isothermal: a system or process operating under constant temperature
condition.
■ Isobaric: a system or process operating under constant pressure
condition.
■ Isochoric/isovolumetric: a system or process operating under constant
volume condition.
■ Adiabatic: a system or process which is insulated to heat to and from
the surrounding.
Classification of processes according to
mode of operation
■ Batch process: The feed is charged into a vessel at the beginning of
the process and are removed some time later. No mass crosses the
system boundary between the time the feed is charged and the time the
product is removed.
■ Continuous process: The input and output flows continuously
throughout the entire process duration.
■ Semi-batch process: Any process that is neither batch nor continuous.