 Introduction

 Importance of soil water

 Retention of Water by Soil

 Ways to Retain Water in Soil
 Factors Affecting Soil Water
 Soil Water Potential
 Methods of expressing suctions
 Measuring Soil Moisture
 Measuring soil moisture content in laboratory
 Measuring soil moisture potential in situ
(field)
 Classification of soil water
 Plant available water
 Structure of Water
• Water can participate in a series of reactions occurring in soils
and plants, only because of its structural behavior.
• Water is simple compound, its individual molecules containing
one oxygen atom and two much smaller hydrogen atoms.
• The elements are bonded together covalently, each hydrogen or
proton sharing its single electron with the oxygen.
• Instead of the atoms being arranged linearly (H-O-H) the
hydrogen atoms are attached to the oxygen as a ‘V’ shaped
arrangement and are seperated from each other by angle 105°

H H

o
 Soil water
• Water contained in soil is called soil moisture.
• The water is held within the soil pores.
• Soil water is the major component of the soil
in relation to plant growth.
• If the moisture content of a soil is optimum
for plant growth, plants can readily absorb
soil water.
• Not all the water, held in soil, is available to
plants.
• Much of water remains in the soil as a thin
film.
• Soil water dissolves salts and makes up the
soil solution, which is important as medium
for supply of nutrients to growing plants.
 Importance of Soil Water

1. It is about 25% by volume in the soil.

2. Soil nutrients are dissolved by water and this aids
roots absorption.
3. Essential for plant metabolism e.g. transpiration,
photosynthesis, translocation.
4. Helps to protect plants from high temperature or
cold temperature.
5. Essential for seed germination.
6. Helps certain soil organisms to break down plant
organic matter and release plant nutrients.
7. Helps in soil reaction e.g. hydration, hydrolysis, etc.
8. It helps in the turgidity of cells thereby preventing diseases in
the plants.
9. It is essential in the weathering of rocks in the soil.
10. It is essential in the tillage and improvement of soil
structure.
11. It promotes cooling effect on crops.
12. Water is needed for translocation of food substances in
plants.
13. It makes the soil easy to cultivate.
 Retention of Water by Soil

• The soils hold water (moisture) due to their

colloidal properties and aggregation qualities.
• The water is held on the surface of the colloids
and other particles and in the pores.
• The forces responsible for retention of water in
the soil after the drainage has stopped are due to
surface tension and surface attraction and are
called surface moisture tension.
• This refers to the energy concept in moisture
retention relationships.
• The force with which water is held is also termed
as suction.
WAYS OR DIFFERENT FORCES OF RETNTION OF WATER
 Ways to Retain Water in Soil
1. Cohesion and adhesion forces:

These two basic forces are responsible for water retention

in the soil.
• One is the attraction of molecules for each other i.e.,
cohesion.
• The other is the attraction of water molecules for the solid
surface of soil i.e. adhesion.
 By adhesion, solids (soil) hold water molecules rigidly
at their soil - water interfaces.
 These water molecules in turn hold by cohesion.
Together, these forces make it possible for the soil solids
to retain water.
2. Surface tension
This phenomenon is commonly evidenced at
water- air interfaces. Water behaves as if its
surface is covered with a stretched elastic
membrane.
At the surface, the attraction of the air for the
water molecules is much less than that of water
molecules for each other.
Consequently, there is a net downward force on
the surface molecules, resulting in sort of a
compressed film (membrane) at the surface.
This phenomenon is called surface tension.
 Polarity Hydrogen
+
oxygen Positive side of
- 105°
Negative side of
the +
molecule
molecule

Hydrogen
Due to ‘V’ shaped structure of water, the side on which the hydrogen atoms
are located tends to be electropositive and the opposite side is electronegative
Because of nonlinear positions of H+ ions, water is polar.
Polar means there is no centre in all directions.
 The H of the water in soil may bond to oxygen ions of soil mineral surfaces,
there by holding the water tightly to soil.
This accounts for the polarity of water and therefore, water is most important
for carrying out many reactions in soils and plants.
3. Polarity or dipole character
• The retention of water molecules on the
surface of clay micelle is based on the dipole
character of the molecule of water.
• The water molecules are held by
electrostatic force that exists on the surface
of colloidal particles.
• By virtue of their dipole character and under
the influence of electrostatic forces, the
molecules of water get oriented (arranged)
on the surface of the clay particles in a
particular manner.
• Each water molecule carries both negative and
positive charges.
• The clay particle is negatively charged.
• The positive end of water molecule gets attached to
the negatively charged surface of clay and leaving its
negative end outward.
• The water molecules attached to the clay surface in
this way present a layer of negative charges to
which another layer of oriented water molecules is
attached.
• The number of successive molecular layers goes on
increasing as long as the water molecules oriented.
• As the molecular layer gets thicker, orientation
becomes weaker, and at a
• certain distance from the particle surface the
water molecules cease to orientate and capillary
water (liquid water) begins to appear.
• Due to the forces of adsorption (attraction)
exerted by the surface of soil particles, water gets
attached on the soil surface.
• The force of gravity also acts simultaneously,
which tries to pull it downwards.
• The surface force is far greater than the force of
gravity so water may remain attached to the soil
particle.
• The water remains attached to the soil particle or
move downward into the lower layers, depending
on the magnitude of the resultant force.
 Factors Affecting Soil Water
1. Texture: Finer the texture, more is the pore space and also
surface area, greater is the retention of water.
2. Structure: Well-aggregated porous structure favors better
porosity, which in turn enhance water retention.
3. Organic matter: Higher the organic matter more is the water
retention in the soil.
4. Density of soil: Higher the density of soil, lower is the moisture
content.
5. Temperature: Cooler the temperature, higher is the moisture
retention.
6. Salt content: More the salt content in the soil less is the water
available to the plant.
7. Depth of soil: More the depth of soil more is the water
available to the plant.
8. Type of clay: The 2:1 type of day increases the water retention
in the soil.
 Soil Water Potential

• The retention and movement of water in soils,

• its uptake and translocation in plants
• and its loss to the atmosphere are all energy related
phenomenon.
• The more strongly water is held in the soil the greater
is the heat (energy) required.
• In other words, if water is to be removed from a moist
soil, work has to be done against adsorptive forces.
• Conversely, when water is adsorbed by the
soil, a negative amount of work is done.
• The movement is from a zone where the free
energy of water is high (standing water
table} to one where the free energy is low (a
dry soil).
• This is called soil water energy concept.
Free energy of soil solids for water is affected by
Force of gravity: This acts on soil water, the attraction is
towards the earth's center, which tends to pull the
water down ward.
This force is always positive. The difference between the
energy states of soil water and pure free water is known
as soil water potential.
Total water potential (Pt} is the sum of the contributions
of gravitational potential (Pg), matric potential (Pm) and
the Osmotic potential or solute potential (Po).
Pt = Pg + Pm + Po
Potential represents the difference in free energy levels of
pure water and of soil water.
The soil water is affected by the force of gravity, presence
of soil solid (matric) and of solutes.
Matric (solid) force i.e., the attraction of the soil
solids for water (adsorption} which markedly
reduces the free energy (movement} of the
adsorbed water molecules.
ii) Osmotic force i.e., the attraction of ions and
other solutes for water to reduce the free energy
of soil solution.
Matric and Osmotic potentials are negative and
reduce the free energy level of the soil water.
These negative potentials are referred as suction or
tension.
 Factors Affecting Soil Water

1. Texture: Finer the texture, more is the pore space and also surface area,
greater is the retention of water.
2. Structure: Well-aggregated porous structure favors better porosity,
which in turn enhance water retention.
3. Organic matter: Higher the organic matter more is the water retention in
the soil.
4. Density of soil: Higher the density of soil, lower is the moisture content.
5. Temperature: Cooler the temperature, higher is the moisture retention.
6. Salt content: More the salt content in the soil less is the water available
to the plant.
7. Depth of soil: More the depth of soil more is the water available to the
plant.
8. Type of clay: The 2:1 type of day increases the water retention in the soil.
 Free energy of soil solids for water is
affected by
i) Matric (solid) force i.e., the attraction of the soil
solids for water (adsorption} which markedly
reduces the free energy (movement} of the
adsorbed water molecules.
ii) Osmotic force i.e., the attraction of ions and
other solutes for water to reduce the free
energy of soil solution.
 Matric and Osmotic potentials are negative and
reduce the free energy level of the soil water.
 These negative potentials are referred as
suction or tension.
• iii) Force of gravity: This acts on soil water,
the attraction is towards the earth's center,
which tends to pull the water down ward.
• This force is always positive.
• The difference between the energy states of
soil water and pure free water is known as
soil water potential.
• The soil water is affected by the force of
gravity, presence of soil solid (matric) and of
solutes.
 Methods of expressing suctions:
i) PF Scale: The free energy is measured in
terms of the height of a column of water
required to produce necessary suction or
pressure difference at a particular soil
moisture level.
ii) The pF, therefore, represents the logarithm
of the height of water column (cm) to give
the necessary suction.
ii) Atmospheres or Bars:
It is another common mean of expressing suction.
Atmosphere is the average air pressure at sea level.
If the suction is very low as occurs in the case of a wet
soil containing the maximum amount of water that it
can hold, the pressure difference is of the order of
about 0.01 atmospheres or 1 PF equivalent to a
column of water 10 cm in height.
Similarly, if the pressure difference is 0.1 atmosphere
the PF will be 20.
Soil moisture constants can be expressed in term of PF
values.
A soil that is saturated with water has PF 0 while an
oven dry soil has a PF 7.
 Measuring Soil Moisture
• Two general types of measurements
relating to soil water are ordinarily
used
i) By some methods the moisture
content is measured directly or
indirectly
ii) Techniques are used to determine
the soil moisture potential (tension
or suction)
 Measuring soil moisture content in
laboratory
1. Gravimetric method

 This consists of obtaining a moist sample,

drying it in an oven at 105°C until it losses no
more weight and then determining the
percentage of moisture.
 The gravimetric method is time consuming
and involves laborious processes of sampling,
weighing and drying in laboratory.
2. Electrical conductivity method:
• This method is based upon the changes in electrical
conductivity with changes in soil moisture.
• Gypsum blocks inside of with two electrodes at a
definite distance are apart used in this method.
• These blocks require previous calibration for
uniformity.
• The blocks are buried in the soil at desired depths
and the conductivity across the electrodes measured
with a modified Wheatstone bridge.
• These electrical measurements are affected by salt
concentration in the soil solution and are not very
helpful in soils with high salt contents.
 Measuring soil moisture potential in situ (field)
3. Suction method or equilibrium tension method:
 Field tensiometers measure the tension with which water is
held in the soils. They are used in determining the need for
irrigation.
 The tensiometer is a porous cup attached to a glass tube, which
is connected to a mercury monometer.
 The tube and cup are filled with water and cup inserted in the
soil.
 The water flows through the porous cup into the soil until
equilibrium is established.
 These tension readings in monometer, expressed in terms of
cm or atmosphere, measures the tension or suction of the soil.
If the soil is dry, water moves through the porous cup, setting
up a negative tension (or greater is the suction).
 The tensiometers are more useful in sandy soils than in fine
textured soils. Once the air gets entrapped in the tensiometer,
the reliability of readings is questionable.
 Tensiometer

Electronic tensiometer: (1) porous cup; (2) water-filled

tube; (3) sensor-head; (4) pressure sensor.
 Classification of soil water

Soil water has been classified from a

• physical point of view as Physical classification
of soil water
• biological point of view as biological
classification of soil water.
 Levels of Water in Soil
Saturation Point – the moisture point at
which all of the pore spaces are filled with
water.
• occurs when an area receives a lot of rain
on a daily basis and the water does not get
absorbed by plants, evaporation is at a low
do to the lack of sunlight, and runoff areas
(ditches, drains) are to capacity.
 Levels of Water in Soil

Field Capacity – the maximum

amount of water left in the soil
after losses of water to the
forces of gravity have ceased
and before surface evaporation
begins.
• occurs when the soil
contains the maximum
amount of capillary water.
 Levels of Water in Soil

Wilting Point – the point at which

the plant can no longer obtain
sufficient water from the soil to meet
its transpiration needs. At this point
the plant enters permanent wilt and
dies.
 Levels of Water in Soil

Available Soil Water – that amount present

in a soil which can be moved by plants. It is
designated as the difference between the
field capacity and the wilting point.
 Physical classification of soil water
 1. Gravitational water:
 Gravitational water occupies the larger soil pores (macro pores)
and moves down readily under the force of gravity.
 Water in excess of the field capacity is termed gravitational water.
 Gravitational water is of no use to plants because it occupies the
larger pores.
 It reduces aeration in the soil.
 Thus, its removal from soil is a requisite for optimum plant
growth.
 Soil moisture tension at gravitational state is zero or less than 1/3
atmosphere.
 
 Factors affecting gravitational water
1. Texture:
 Plays a great role in controlling the rate of
movement of gravitational water.
 The flow of water is proportional to the
size of particles.
 The bigger the particle, the more rapid is
the flow or movement.
 Because of the larger size of pore, water
percolates more easily and rapidly in sandy
soils than in clay soils.
2. Structure:
i. It also affects gravitational water.
ii.In platy structure movement of gravitational
water is slow and water stagnates in the soil.
iii. Granular and crumby structure helps to
improve gravitational water movement.
iv. In clay soils having single grain structure, the
gravitational water, percolates more slowly.
v. If clay soils form aggregates (granular
structure), the movement of gravitational
water improves.
 2. Capillary water
• Capillary water is held in the capillary pores (micro pores).
• Capillary water is retained on the soil particles by surface
forces.
• It is held so strongly that gravity cannot remove it from the
soil particles.
• The molecules of capillary water are free and mobile and are
present in a liquid state.
• Due to this reason, it evaporates easily at ordinary
temperature though it is held firmly by the soil particle;
plant roots are able to absorb it.
• Capillary water is, therefore, known as available water.
• The capillary water is held between 1/3 and 31 atmosphere
pressure.
 Factors affecting capillary water
• i. Surface tension: An increase in surface tension increases the amount of
capillary water.
• ii. Soil texture: The finer the texture of a soil, greater is the amount of capillary
water holds. This is mainly due to the greater surface area and a greater
number of micro pores.
• iii. Soil structure: Platy structure contains more water than granular structure.
• iv. Organic matter:
• The presence of organic matter helps to increase the capillary capacity of a
soil.
• Organic matter itself has a great capillary capacity.
• Undecomposed organic matter is generally porous having a large surface
area, which helps to hold more capillary water.
• The humus that is formed on decomposition has a great capacity for
absorbing and holding water.
• Hence the presence of organic matter in soil increases the amount of
capillary water in soil.
 3. Hygroscopic water
• The water that held tightly on the surface of soil colloidal
particle is known as hygroscopic water.
• It is essentially non-liquid and moves primarily in the
vapour form.
• Hygroscopic water held so tenaciously (31 to 10000
atmospheres) by soil particles that plants can not absorb
it.
• Some microorganism may utilize hygroscopic water.
• As hygroscopic water is held tenaciously by surface forces
its removal from the soil requires a certain amount of
energy.
• Unlike capillary water which evaporates easily at
atmospheric temperature, hygroscopic water cannot be
separated from the soil unless it is heated.
 Factors affecting hygroscopic
water
• Hygroscopic water is held on the surface of colloidal
particles by the dipole orientation of water molecules.
The amount of hygroscopic water varies inversely with
the size of soil particles. The smaller the particle, the
greater is the amount of hygroscopic water it adsorbs.
Fine textured soils like clay contain more hygroscopic
water than coarse textured soils.
• The amount of clay and also its nature influences the
amount of hygroscopic water. Clay minerals of the
montmoril1onite type with their large surface area
adsorb more water than those of the kaolinite type,
while illite minerals are intermediate.
 Biological Classification of Soil Water
• There is a definite relationship between moisture retention and its utilization
by plants. This classification based on the availability of water to the plant. Soil
moisture can be divided into three parts.
 
i. Available water:
• The water which lies between wilting coefficient and field capacity.
• It is obtained by subtracting wilting coefficient from moisture equivalent.
• ii. Unavailable water:
• This includes the whole of the hygroscopic water plus a part of the capillary
water below the wilting point.
• iii. Super available or superfluous water:
• The water beyond the field capacity stage is said to be super available.
• It includes gravitational water plus a part of the capillary water removed
from larger interstices.
• This water is unavailable for the use of plants.
• The presence of super-available water in a soil for any extended period is
harmful to plant growth because of the lack of air.
 Levels of Water in Soil
Saturation Point – the moisture point at
which all of the pore spaces are filled with
water.
• occurs when an area receives a lot of rain
on a daily basis and the water does not get
absorbed by plants, evaporation is at a low
do to the lack of sunlight, and runoff areas
(ditches, drains) are to capacity.
Levels of Water in Soil

Field Capacity – the maximum

amount of water left in the soil
after losses of water to the forces
of gravity have ceased and
before surface evaporation
begins.
• occurs when the soil contains
the maximum amount of
capillary water.
 Levels of Water in Soil

Wilting Point – the point at which the plant

can no longer obtain sufficient water from the
soil to meet its transpiration needs. At this
point the plant enters permanent wilt and
dies.
 Levels of Water in Soil

Available Soil Water – that amount

present in a soil which can be moved by
plants. It is designated as the
difference between the field capacity
and the wilting point.
 SOIL - WATER - PLANT
                              RELATIONSHIP
Schematic representation of soil as a
dynamic system composed of air,
water and solids
Source and fate of water added to a
soil system.
 Saturated (wet) soil. All pores (light
areas) are filled with water. The dark
areas represent soil solids.
Water distribution in a soil at field capacity. Capillary water (lightly shaded areas ) in
soil pores is available to plants. Field capacity represents the upper limit of plant-
available water.
Water distribution in a soil at thw wilting point. This water is held tightly in thin
films around soil particles and is unavailable to plants. The wilting point
represents the lower limit of plant-available water.
• Plant-available water, PAW,

• It is the volume of water stored in the soil

reservoir that can be used by plants.
• It is the difference between the volume of
water stored when the soil is at field
capacity and the volume still remaining
when the soil reaches the permanent wilting
point (the lower limit),
 Relationship between plant-available water and water distribution in the soil.

The amount of PAW stored in the soil reservoir is commonly expressed as the depth of
water per unit depth of soil.
Typical units are inches of PAW per inch of soil depth or inches of PAW per foot of soil
depth. Different types of soils have different PAWs.
Estimates of PAW for various soil textural classes are given in published soil survey
reports.
These estimates range from less than 0.05 inch of PAW per inch of soil for coarse sandy
soils to nearly 0.2 inch of PAW per inch of soil for silty loams
Concepts in soil water balances for
crop water requirements