Chapter five

Data Capturing Techniques


Traditional Methods
List some of traditional data capturing techniques.
-Pacing, kada, Timad, Hectar and so on

Compass and tape
What is compass?
The standard surveyor’s compass is a hand-held device which
shows the bearing of a line relative to magnetic north.
What types of tape you know?
 Cont……
Tape: Tapes come in a variety of lengths and materials.
sources of error:

inaccuracy in the length of the tape;

variations in the length of the tape due to changes in
temperature;

variations in the length of the tape due to changes in
tension;

slope (since it is usually the horizontal component of the
length that is required);

sag on any unsupported spans;

errors at the junction of tape lengths
Compass Types of tape
Total station

Peer Group Discussions


What is total station (TS)?


How it work?


Can you list some types of TS?


What is the difference between Theodolite and TS ?

A total station is a combination of theodolite and
electronic distance measuring device (EDM).
Some Types of TS
Sokkia Set02N Total Station Leica TS02 7" Total Station
Mato MTS802R Reflectorless Total Station Mato MTS602R Reflectorless Total Station
Topcon GTS102N Total Station Gowin TKS202 Total Station
Satellite images source

The accuracy of satellite image is depends on the

resolution of the pixel.

Some Sources of satellite images:

IKONOS


Quick Bird


LANDSAT


SPOT

 Peer Group Discussion


Which data source technique is more accurate satellite
images or ground data collections? Why explain it.

What are the advantages and disadvantage of satellite
images data sources for cadastral works?
Advantages of satellite images

Generally the image gives a very good overview of the
survey, making it easy to verify that all parcels and
details in an area are measured.

Making a parcel is easier in satellite image than with
ground survey.

It is easy to detect in the image if e.g. a parcel border
line is slightly bent, and digitize this with some extra
points along the line. This is often missed in ground
surveys, where the bent border is often only represented
by a single line.
Disadvantages of satellite images

The image is describing the landscape as it looked like when
the image was taken. If e.g. two years have passed since then,
the landscape might have changed considerably by changed
parcel shapes, new roads, cut down trees etc.

Digitized parcel borders between two parcels might be
wrong for two reasons. First, two farmers might use the same
crops, making the border invisible in the image. Secondly,
one farmer might grow two different crops on the same
parcel, making one parcel look like two different parcels in
Cont…

To order a new satellite image might mean high initial costs.
An enquiry in June 2008 revealed prices between 30-50 US$ /
square km for a detailed (<1m resolution) orthorectified
image (the same scale in the whole image).

The accuracy is often a subject of misunderstanding when it
comes to satellite images. The resolution means the size of
one pixel projected on the ground, and is often mistaken for
the resulting accuracy.

To georeference the image, it is needed to find details in the
image that can be clearly identified in the field.
Geo-Referencing satellite images
What is Geo-referencing?
Why we need geo-referenced images?
 GPS for Cadastral Surveying

Peer Group Discussion points

What is GPS?
How it works?
How many satellite we need during 2D and 3D positioning?
What sources of error affect GPS measurements?
How many type of GPS you know?
GPS
GPS 24 satellites
constellation

The number and

constellation of satellites
guarantees that the signals of
at least four satellites can be
received at any time all over
the world.
GPS Segments
Space segment


Control segment


User segment

Errors in GPS
measurements
Sources of error in GPS measurement
Selective Availability


"Satellite geometry"


Satellite Orbits


Multipath effect


Atmospheric effects


Clock inaccuracies and rounding errors



Relativistic effects

DOP values (dilution of
precision)

To indicate the quality of the satellite geometry, the DOP
values (dilution of precision) are commonly used.

Based on which factors are used for the calculation of the
DOP values, different variants are distinguished:

GDOP (Geometric Dilution Of Precision); Overall-accuracy;
3D-coordinates and time GDOP2=PDOP2 +TDOP2

PDOP (Positional Dilution Of Precision) ; Position accuracy;
3D-coordinates ( PDOP2 =HDOP2 +VDOP2)

HDOP (Horizontal Dilution Of Precision); horizontal
accuracy; 2D-coordinates

VDOP (Vertical Dilution Of Precision); vertical accuracy;
height

TDOP (Time Dilution Of Precision); time accuracy; time
Types of GPS
Hand Held GPS Deferential GPS
Aerial Images

Brian Storming
Discuss in Peer Groups
What are the advantages and disadvantages of


Aerial Images as compared to Satellite images?

Disadvantages

It needs huge cost during the flight



It will cover small areas so that we need many flights to



cover large areas

We need to have ground control points so that we



should invest some money to GCPS.

It is highly weather dependant



We need to model other parameters like solar radiation


Advantages

The considerably lower height of the exposures gives a high
resolution, often on decimeter level in the ground coordinate
system.

From a stereo pair of images, a 3D model can be created from the
stereo perspective of the details in the images. This will
automatically give an accurate terrain model for the rectification.
The amount of needed ground control points is much lower than
the terrain model needed for satellite image rectification.

The use of ground control points for the photogrammetric
calculations will give an accurate georeference of the images.
 “GIS-GPS” Equipment
Some modern GPS equipments have, except for receiving GPS
signals, full Windows Mobile capacity. This makes it possible
to use customized GIS software’s such as ArcPad in the field.
In this software, which is similar to the basics of ArcMap,
georeferenced images as well as ArcGIS shapefiles (layers
showing points, lines and areas, the latter also called shapes or
polygons) can be displayed, with many editing possibilities
using a touch-screen. The current GPS position can be
displayed in the image or the shapefile.
Nomad TDS ”GIS-GPS” display
Traversing (Control Point Establishment)
A traverse may be defined as the course taken when
measuring a connected series of straight, each line joining
two points on the ground.
Traverse station, Traverse legs


Angles: Theodolite or total station



Distance: tape, chain or EDM



It can be closed and opened traverse


 Static Measurements in DGPS
Static GPS surveying is a relative positioning technique that
depends on the carrier-phase measurements. It employs two (or
more) stationary receivers simultaneously tracking the same
satellites. One receiver, the base receiver, is set up over a point
with precisely known coordinates such as a survey monument
(sometimes referred to as the known point). The other receiver,
the remote receiver, is set up over a point whose coordinates are
sought (sometimes referred to as the unknown point). The base
receiver can support any number of remote receivers, as long as a
In principle, this method is based on collecting simultaneous
measurements at both the base and remote receivers for a
certain period of time, which, after processing, yield the
coordinates of the unknown point. The observation, or
occupation, time varies from about 20 minutes to a few hours,
depending on the distance between the base and the remote
receivers (i.e., the baseline length), the number of visible
satellites, and the satellite geometry. The measurements are
usually taken at a recording interval of 15 or 20 seconds, or one
sample measurement every 15 or 20 seconds.
Static GPS surveying with the carrier-phase measurements is
the most accurate positioning technique. This is mainly due
to the significant change in satellite geometry over the long
observation time span.
Steps for Static Measurement

The static survey is aiming to process a baseline from a

known point to an unknown point. When you are using
Leica Geo Office (LGO) and set the control with its
known coordinate, LGO process the new coordinate and
you will get the coordinate in WGS84 or ADINDAN
UTM37N Clarke 1880.
Real Time Kinematic Measurement (RTK)
RTK surveying is a carrier phase–based relative positioning
technique that, like the static method, employs two (or
more) receivers simultaneously tracking the same satellites.
This method is suitable when: the survey involves a large
number of unknown points located in the vicinity (i.e.,
within up to about 10–15 km) of a known point; the
coordinates of the unknown points are required in real time;
and the line of sight, the propagation path, is relatively
unobstructed . Because of its ease of use as well as its
In this method, the base receiver remains stationary over the
known point and is attached to a radio transmitter. Similar to
the conventional kinematic GPS method, a data rate as high
as 1 Hz (one sample per second) is required. The base receiver
measurements and coordinates are transmitted to the rover
receiver through the communication (radio) link. The built-
in software in a rover receiver combines and processes the
GPS measurements collected at both the base and the rover
receivers to obtain the rover coordinates.
Steps for RTK GPS Measurement

To perform RTK measurement, first select one known point
and set the GPS. Create a job and configure for RTK
measurement as Reference GPS
Group Discussion
What are the advantages and disadvantages of


Static and RTK measurement?

Data down loading and processing
This will be exercise in Lab
Peer Group Assignment 3
Unit-3 Activity-3

Control point establishment ( some group are finished
but not all)

Detail surveying (Not Yet started)

Data down loading and coordinate transformation (Not
yet started) (10%)
 Chapter 4 Cadastral Map

Brain Storming
Dear student can you list and explain different types of map?
How cadastre map differ from others?
What are the purpose of cadastral map?
ease Discuss in groups and reflect your discussions to the clas
 Cadastral Mapping

Cadastre is a technical term for a set of records showing the

extent, value and ownership (or other basis for use or occupancy)
of land. Strictly speaking, a cadastre is a record of areas and
values of land and of landholders that originally was compiled
for purposes of taxation. In many countries there is, however, no
longer any land tax and in practice the cadastre serves two other
equally important purposes.
Cont..
In cities there is always great demand for a variety of maps. City
administration, technical services, planners, investors, and
those concerned with all facets of city life cannot operate
properly without suitable maps. These maps may vary in scale,
content, or form of presentation. General planning requires
maps at scales such as 1:5000, and 1:10000, but the execution of
some projects may require plans at a scale of 1:1000 or larger.
For administration, land use, cadastre, or detailed planning,
maps at scales of 1:500 to 1:2000 are usually used.
There is also a need for a variety of special or thematic maps,
particularly at smaller scales. These maps usually depict specific
information; the scale is selected to permit the coverage of the
whole city by a single map sheet.
To systematize the subject, we shall subdivide city maps into the
following three categories.
The city base map is the original map of the city prepared from


actual field surveying or photogrammetric plots.

Derived maps are basically similar in content to the city base


map but are usually at smaller scales; they are derived from the
base map and use a certain generalization in presentation.
Thematic maps include maps not listed in category 1 or 2.


Usually, they are single-factor maps providing, on a reference

background, quantitative or qualitative information on the
phenomenon in question.

A cadastral mapping system should contain the follow­
ing components.

geodetic control network

current, accurate, base map layer (ideally, pho­
togrammetrically derived tied to the geodetic control)

cadastral overlays delineating all real property parcels

a unique parcel identifier assigned to each parcel
Cadastral map trends
Cont…
A modern cadastre normally consists of a series of large-
scale maps or plans, and corresponding registers. Both
the plans and the registers may be stored in computers.
What is the difference b/n plan and map?


Is cadastre prepared in large or small scale? Why?


 Cont..
The scale of cadastral maps is of great importance. Since
the object of the map is to provide a precise description
and identification of the land, the scale must be large
enough for every separate plot of land which may be the
subject of separate possession (conveniently called a
“survey plot” or “land parcel”) to appear as a recognizable
unit on the map.
Since the map and the corresponding registers form
complementary parts of the same system of description and
identification, there must be some system of cross-referencing
between what is shown on the map and what is recorded in the
registers. This usually means that either names or numbers must
be given to each separate land parcel. These references are
known as property identifiers (PID) or unique parcel reference
numbers (UPRN). Various reference systems have been
developed including:
 Cont..

The name of the grantor or grantee

A sequential title number

The volume and folio numbers on which the plot is
registered

The name of a farm or locality with an individual plot
number

The registration block and individual plot numbers

A post office address

A street index reference and parcel number

A grid coordinate or “geocode”
 Small Vs Large scale maps
The smallest satisfactory scale depends primarily on the area of
the smallest survey plot likely to be met with, and may thus vary
greatly in different circumstances. A much larger scale will be
necessary for cadastral maps of towns than for those of rural
areas. Similarly a closely occupied countryside consisting of small
fields and holdings will require maps on a larger scale than is
necessary in areas where there are large farms with open fields.
 Cont…
Large-scale plans are initially much more expensive to make per
unit area than small-scale maps, but it must always be
remembered that, once the large- scale survey has been
completed, accurate maps on any smaller scale can be derived
from them. The converse is not however true for although
larger-scale maps can easily be constructed by using computers,
they can never be more accurate than the original data from
which they were first compiled.
Topographic Vs Cadastral map
The maps with which most people are familiar are
topographic maps at scales of around 1:50,000. Such maps
make it possible to show accurately (though not always to
scale) the position of roads, railways, footpaths, villages,
rivers, streams, bridges, important buildings, administrative
boundaries and other similar features as well as the relief of
the land, the depth of water and variations in tide level.
Cont..
Most cadastral maps need to be at scales of between 1:500 and
1:2,500 although in densely developed areas a larger scale may
be needed while in open countryside much smaller scales may
be acceptable.
Usually cadastral maps need only be “planimetric” maps, that is
to say, they need not show topographical relief. There may be
special reasons why altitudes should be recorded on cadastral
maps, but ordinarily all that is needed is a plan of what is seen,
without stereoscopy, from a point vertically above the piece of
land observed.
Cadastral Maps Preparation Guidelines

Brain storming
Make group Discussions in the following:
•What is the importance of Map Preparation
Guidelines?
•Can you guess and list some of general guidelines/
map elements/ .
General map Guidelines /Elements/
Map title: The map title should be set in large bold text to stand out


from other annotation on the map.

Map placement: The placement of the map should be such that it does


not intrude on the frame/title block, reference, index map and other
elements.
North / South orientation : On manually compiled maps, the


orientation of the map may be adjusted to fit the page. As a general rule,
orientation should be north-south with north at the top of the page.
Identification of Position of mapped area : There should be enough


orientation features to ensure that map readers can see what area has
been mapped.
 Cont…

Map extent : Information should be shown up to the
neat line of the map, except for special cases such as
when the boundary of a catchment is used as the edge
of the map.

Map Sheet Size: A uniform size for map sheets
facilitates handling and storage of maps.
75x75 cm


80x60 cm


80x64 cm


A0,A1, A2, A3, A4 etc., based on your purpose, plotting hardware


 Cont…
Arrows: In some instances arrows indicating details will be


unavoidable. They must be drawn on separate layer. Arrow heads

size not exceeding 3 mm on the drawing. Use a north arrow
consistent in size and style with the rest of the map (in cases
when title block is not applied).
Cont..

Scale: A scale bar or numerical scale e.g. 1:50 000 is essential.



If a numerical scale is indicated, it should be in the fractional

form, e.g. 1:1000 000. Include 'fine tuning' blocks for a section
of the scale bar. Use a 'rational' subdivision for the scale bar, for
example 5, 10, 15, 20 rather than 12.5, 25, 37.5. Cadastral offices’
title block contains scale bar appropriate scale should be
entered in space provided.
Scale ranges Typical standard scales
1:500 to 1:5000 1:500
1:1000
1:2000
1:5 000 to 1:13 000 1:5 000
1:7 500
1:10 000
1:13 000 to 1:33 000 1:15 000
1:20 000
1:25 000
1:33 000 to 1:83 000 1:50 000
1:75 000
1:83 000 to 1:183 000 1:100 000
1:150 000
1:183 000 to 1:433 000 1:200 000
1:250 000
1:433 000 to 1:1 082 000 1:500 000
1:1 000 000
> 1:1 082 000 1:2 500 000
1:7 500 000
 Cont…
Map reference (Legend) : All features on a map must be


explained in the reference.

Guidelines for text: Ensure sufficient contrast between


the type and the background. Do this by choosing

appropriate colors, and placing a mask around the text, if
necessary: Text should not overlap other information.

Map symbol : the symbols represent what we have on
the ground. Symbols must be internationally
understandable.
Digital cadastral map
 Accuracy of Map
Accuracy of map data is the degree toward which any given feature(s)

on a map conforms to its true position on the ground

• Horizontal Accuracy /positional according the National Mapping -

EMA = -/+ 30cm (at the scale of 1:2,000)

• Vertical Accuracy- Globally there are accepted accuracy levels set by

NMAs, National Mapping Agencies, and accordingly the Ethiopian

National Mapping - EMA standard is = 0.25 or ¼ of the contour

interval – 1:500 -0.5m, 1:1000m -1m, 1:5000 - 2m, 5m.

 Cont..
But when we go specific, Contour Interval/CI/ depend on
the topography of the land feature of the town. When we
are dealing with flat area we usually use 1 meter CI. In
normal condition 2 meters and in a very hill feature we go
up to 4 meters CI.
 Cont..
• Temporal accuracy = time of the data

• Content accuracy of the cadastral data is also important. Content

accuracy has to do with the correctness and completeness of the
attribute data associated with the points, lines, and polygons that
comprise the cadastral database.
Layers of Cadastral MAP
• Topographic layers

• Vegetation layers

• Road layers

• Transportation layers: Air strip, Public transport lines, Terminals,

• Utility layers

• Built-Up area layer: Blocks, Parcels, Buildings, Fences

• Jurisdiction layers: Administrative/town boundary, District boundary if

there is Kebele
Scale of Cadastral Maps
Peer Group Discussion
What is scale?
How many types of map scale you know?
Types of scale
Small Vs Large scale: we are already discussed.

Other types of scale

1. Verbal scale: “ one centimeter on the map represents one kilometer

on the ground” .

2. Frictional scale: 1:10, 000, 1:12, 000 etc

3. Ratio: 1/10 000, 1/12 000 etc

Projections and Coordinate Systems

Brian Storming
What is Map projection?

Why we need map projection?

How many types of map projection you know?

What is the importance of appropriate coordinate system?

Can you list some types of coordinate system and explain each types.

Discuss in groups and reflect your discussion to the class

Map Projection
Map projections are methods of displaying the earth on a flat plane.
It is often necessary to record the positions of points, boundaries
and natural features on a map and this is usually done by showing
the east and north positions directly on a flat 2D projection, and
where it is necessary the heights by means of contour lines.

Generally map projection is translation of 3D objects on the earth to

2D on the map.
 Types of map projection
Map projections are classified either by way the projection is made and
the surface onto which it is projected or by the characteristics of the
resultant projected maps.

A. Map Projection types based on characteristics of the resultant

projected maps
1. Conformal projections: The angle between any two lines on the earth must be the
same between their projected counterparts on the map

2. Equivalent projections (Equal _area): The area of a figure on the earth remains the
same on the plane independent of the shape or size of the figure

3. Equidistant projections : Distance from a singe location to all other locations is preserved.
 Cont..
B. Map projections based on the geometric surface that the sphere
is projected on

1. Azimuthal projection: The projection is done on azimuthal plane.

Azimuthal plane is the plane passing through the point and lying
normal to the vertical at that point.
 Cont..
2. Planar projection: Map projection resulting from the conceptual

projection of the earth onto a tangent or secant plane. Usually a

planar projection is the same as an Azimuthal projection.
 Cont..
3. Cylindrical projection : Earth intersects the cylinder on two small

circles. All points along both circles have no scale distortion.

Meridians are projected as straight, parallel lines with equal
spacing.

Oblique cylindrical projections cylindrical projections

 Cont..
4. Conic projections: In this projection, points are projected radically

onto the cone; the cone is then cut and unwrapped to form the
projection. The transformation is made to the surface of a cone
tangent at a small circle (tangent case) or intersecting at two
small circles (secant case) on a globe. All points along these
circles have no scale distortion.
 Other Map Projections

1. Mercator projection: The Mercator projection is a conformal

cylindrical projection, which was invented by Gerardus Mercator
(1512-1594) with the cylinder touching the earth around its
equator. The scale factor of the projection is a function of
latitude only; it is true on the equator or along two parallels
equidistant from the equator and rises to infinity at the poles.
 Cont.
2. The transverse Mercator projection: Also known as the Gauss-

Lambert projection, in its spherical form was invented by Johann

Lambert (1728-1777) and in the ellipsoidal form was invented by
C.F. Gauss (1777-1855).This is a conformal version of the
transverse cylindrical projection, and is defined by specifying the
shape of the ellipsoid, a central meridian and the value of the
scale factor along it (known as the central scale factor).
 Cont..

3. Universal Transverse Mercator projection (UTM)

UTM is a cylindrical map projection established in 1936 by

international Union of Geodesy and Geophysics, adopted by US
Army in 1947, and the purpose was to get a transversal Mercator
map of the whole Earth. It is adopted by many national and
international mapping agencies, including NATO and now it is
commonly used in topographic and thematic mapping for
referencing satellite imagery.

The earth is divided in 60 zones in longitude, between the latitudes

84º N and 80º S
 Cont..
4. Albers Equal Area projection

This projection is equal area conical type of projection. The

parallels are projected as concentric circles with unequal spacing
while the meridian intersects the parallels orthogonally and the
meridians have equal spacing.

5. Lambert Conformal projection

It is conical conformal projection. The parallels are unequally

spaced arcs of concentric circles, more closely spaced near the
centre of the map.
 Cont..

6. Orthographic projection

This projection is Azimuthal type of map projection .The meridians and

the parallels are ellipses circles or straight lines.

7. Stereographic projection

This projection is conformal type of Azimuthal projection in which the

central meridian and a special parallel are straight lines.

8. Gnomonic Projection

This projection is neither conformal nor equivalent. All meridians and the
Equator are straight lines, and all parallels, except the Equator and
poles, are ellipses, parabolas or hyperbolas.
 Cont..
9. Lambert Azimuthal Equal Area projection

All meridians in the polar aspect, the central meridian in other

aspects, and the Equator in the equatorial aspect are straight lines.
 Map distortion
The general characteristics of map projections are given by the following
concepts.
•Coformality The scale of a map at any point on the map is the same in any
direction.
•Distance The distances from the centre of the projection to any other place on
the map.
•Direction A map preserves direction when azimuths are portrayed correctly in all
directions.
•Area The area over the entire map has the same proportional relationship to the
areas on the earth that they represent.
•Scale It is the relationship between a distance portrayed on a map and the same
distance on the Earth.
 Coordinate system
There are many types of coordinate system. Some of them are:
1. Satellite Reference Coordinate System
2. The Geocentric Coordinate System
1) Inclination angle (i)
2) The argument of
perigee, w (equator
to the line of
apsides)
3) The right assention
of the ascending
node,  (orbital
plane in equator to
vernal equinox)
4) The Greenwich hour
angle of the vernal
equinox
3. The Geodetic Coordinate System
 Cont..
1. Ellipsoid and Geoid
Ellipsoidal parameters
. Ellipsoid Semi-major axis (m) Semi-minor axis Flattening, f
(m)
Clarke 1880 6378249.145 6356514.870 1/ 293.465
WGS 84 6378137.0 6356752.4 1/298.257223563
GRS 80 6378137.0 6356752.3 1/298.257222101
ITRS 6378136.49 6356751.75 1/298.25645
 Functions of Cadastral Maps
• Requirements of land markets and land registration : Land registration
requires each parcel to be uniquely defined spatially so that land owners are
secure in their rights and can trade those land rights.

• Requirements for land tax and land valuation : The levying of land taxes
requires a systematic inventory of land parcels since all or most parcels must
be included in the system.

• Requirement for utilities management : Utilities are generally only interested

in managing their infrastructure and in serving their customers.

• Requirement for urban land management: Urban areas or cities require a

complete record of all land parcels to manage the land use, infrastructure and
assets, and to control development in their areas of responsibility.
 Cont..
• Requirement for rural land management : Different countries have

different land management requirements. In Denmark and other

European countries the cadastre plays a central role in land
management both in urban and rural areas.
Mapping Software
The are may open sourced and licensed mapping software in the world.
Some of these software are:
• ArcGIS
• Autocad
• Topcad
• Global Mapper
• Arcpad
etc
 Unit Summary
• Cadastral Mapping
• Cadastral Maps Preparation Guidelines

• Map Scale

• Map Symbols

• Functions of Cadastral Maps

• Map Projection and Coordinate System

• Map Distortion

• Mapping Software