Lecture 4

FLUID FLOW
AND
THE MOMENTUM EQUATION

Prof Pradeep Sahoo

 Lecture 4: FLUID
FLOW

This lecture discusses the analysis of fluids in

motion – namely, Fluid Dynamics.
The motion of fluids can be predicted in the
same way as the motion of solids are predicted
using the fundamental laws of physics
together with the physical properties of the
fluid.

Fluid flow can however be very complex, and

simplifying assumptions are necessary.
 The objectives of this lecture are to:
• Introduce concepts necessary to analyse fluids in
motion
• Identify differences between Steady/unsteady
uniform/non-uniform/compressible/incompressible
flow
• Introduce the notion of streamlines and streamtubes
• Introduce the Continuity principle through
conservation of mass and control volumes
• Introduce the momentum equation for a fluid
• Demonstrate how the momentum equation and
principle of conservation of momentum are used to
predict forces induced by flowing fluids
Fluid Dynamics

Fluid Dynamics is the study of fluids in motion.

Fluid motion can be predicted in the same way as the

motion of solids.
However, some fluid flow can be very complex, e.g:
• Spray behind a car
• waves on beaches;
• hurricanes and tornadoes
• any other atmospheric phenomenon

Hence, empirical formulae are often used to predict

flow.
Classification of Flow
Fluid flow may be classified as follows:

Uniform Flow: Flow conditions (velocity,

pressure, cross section or depth) are the same at
every point in the fluid.
Non-uniform Flow: Flow conditions are not the
same at every point.

Steady Flow: Flow conditions may differ from point

to point but DO NOT change with time.

Unsteady Flow: Flow conditions change with time at

any point.
The above can work in combination in which
case we get:

Steady uniform flow: Conditions do not change

with position in the stream or with time. E.g.:
flow of water in a pipe of constant diameter at
constant velocity.

Steady non-uniform flow: Conditions change

from point to point in the stream but do not
change with time. E.g.: Flow in a tapering pipe
with constant velocity at the inlet.
Unsteady uniform flow: At a given instant in
time the conditions at every point are the
same, but will change with time. E.g.: A pipe
of constant diameter connected to a pump
pumping at a constant rate which is then
switched off.
Unsteady non-uniform flow: Every condition
of the flow may change from point to point
and with time at every point. E.g.: Waves in a
channel.

This course is restricted to Steady uniform

flow
- which is the simplest of the four.
Compressible and Incompressible Flow

All fluids are compressible - even liquids like water.

Density will change as pressure changes.

We all know that gases are easily compressible.

Under steady conditions, and provided that changes

in pressure are small, we usually treat liquids as
incompressible, that is, the density remains
constant.
Three Dimensional Flow

In general fluid flow is three-dimensional, and

pressures and velocities change in all directions.

In many cases the greatest changes only occur in

two directions - or even only in one.

In this case, changes in the other directions can

effectively be ignored, making analysis much
more simple.
One Dimensional Flow

Conditions vary only in the direction of flow and

not across the cross-section.

The flow may be unsteady with the parameters

varying in time but not across the cross-section.
E.g.: Flow in a pipe.
But: In reality, since flow must be zero at the
pipe wall, yet non-zero in the centre, there
is a difference of parameters across the
cross-section.
 Consider water flowing through a pipe as shown below:

Should this be treated as two-dimensional flow?

Possibly - but it is only necessary if very high accuracy
is required.
Two-Dimensional Flow
Conditions vary in the direction of flow and in one
direction at right angles to this.
Flow patterns in two-dimensional flow can be shown
by curved lines on a plane.

Two-dimensional flow over a weir

Streamlines
In analysing fluid flow it is useful to visualise the
flow pattern.
Lines joining points of equal velocity (velocity
contours) can be drawn. These lines are know as
streamlines.
Below are 2-D streamlines around a cross-
section
of an aircraft wing shaped body.
Some points to note about streamlines:
1. Streamlines close to a solid boundary are parallel to
that boundary
2. The direction of the streamline is the direction of
the fluid velocity
3. Fluid can not cross a streamline
4. Streamlines can not cross each other
5. Any particles starting on one streamline will stay
on that same streamline
6. In unsteady flow streamlines can change position
with time
8. In steady flow, the position of streamlines does not
change.
Streamtubes
A useful technique in fluid flow analysis is to
consider only a part of the total fluid in isolation
from the rest.
This can be done by imagining a tubular surface
formed by streamlines within which the fluid
flows.

This tubular surface is known as a streamtube.

In a two-dimensional flow the streamtube is flat
(in the plane of the paper):

Note that:
• The wall of a streamtube are made of streamlines.
• A streamtube is not a tube – rather it should be
seen as a solid bar of fluid with its walls moving
with time and with the fluid
Some points about streamtubes:
1. The “walls” of a streamtube are streamlines.
2. Fluid cannot flow across a streamline, so fluid
cannot cross a streamtube “wall”.
3. A streamtube is not like a pipe. Its “walls” move
with the fluid.
4. In unsteady flow streamtubes can change
position with time
5. In steady flow, the position of streamtubes does
not change.
LAMINAR AND TURBULENT FLOW

Reynolds’ apparatus
The criterion which determines whether flow is
viscous or turbulent is the quantity ρvl/µ, known as
the Reynolds number (Re).

For flow in a pipe

• Re < 2000 flow will be laminar
• 2000 < Re < 4000 flow transition
• Re > 4000 flow will be turbulent
 MOTION OF A FLUID
PARTICLE
Any particle or element of fluid will obey the
normal laws of mechanics in the same way as a
solid body. When a force is applied, its behaviour
can be predicted from Newton’s laws, which state:
• A body will remain at rest or in a state of uniform
motion in a straight line until acted upon by an
external force.
• The rate of change of momentum of a body is
proportional to the force applied and takes place
in the direction of action of that force.
• Action and reaction are equal and opposite.
In any body of flowing fluid, the velocity at a given instant will
generally vary from point to point over any specified region,
and if the flow is unsteady the velocity at each point may vary
with time.
In this field of flow, at any given time, a particle at point A will
have a different velocity from that of a particle at point B. The
velocities at A and B may also change with time. Thus the
change of velocity δv, which occurs when a particle moves
from A to B through a distance δs in time δt, is given by

(1)

(2)
 ACCELERATION OF A FLUID PARTICLE

The forces acting on a particle are related to the resultant

acceleration δv/δt of the particle by Newton’s second law.
From equation (2) in the limit at δ t → 0,

(3)

The derivative Dv/Dt is known as the substantive derivative.

The total acceleration, known as the substantive acceleration,
is composed of two parts, as shown in equation (3):
• the convective acceleration v(∂v/∂s) due to the
movement of the particle from one point to
another point at which the velocity at the given
instant is different;

• the local or temporal acceleration ∂v/∂t due to

the change of velocity at every point with time.

For steady flow, ∂v/∂t = 0, while for uniform flow,

∂v/∂s = 0.
 DISCHARGE AND MEAN VELOCITY
The total quantity of fluid flowing in unit time past any
particular cross-section of a stream is called the discharge or
flow at that section.
It can be measured either in terms of mass, in which case it
is referred to as the mass rate of flow A and measured in
units such as kilograms per second, or in terms of volume,
when it is known as the volume rate of flow Q, measured in
units such as cubic metres per second.
In an ideal fluid, in which there is no friction, the velocity u of
the fluid would be the same at every point of the cross-
section. In unit time, a prism of fluid would pass the given
cross-section and, if the cross-sectional area normal to the
direction of flow is A, the volume passing would be A. Thus

Q = A.
In a real fluid, the velocity adjacent to a solid boundary will be
zero or, more accurately, equal to the wall velocity in the flow
direction, a condition known as ‘no slip’, which will be true as
long as the flow does not separate from the wall.
EXAMPLE: Air flows between two parallel plates 80 mm
apart. The following velocities were determined by
direct measurement

Plot the velocity distribution curve and calculate the

mean velocity.
Solution
 CONTINUITY OF FLOW

For Steady flow

 Continuous flow through a streamtube

Mass entering per unit time at 1 = ρ1δA1u1,

Mass leaving per unit time at 2 = ρ2δA2u2.
Then, for steady flow,
Example: Water flows from A to D and E through
the series pipeline shown in Figure below. Given
the pipe diameters, velocities and flow rates
below, complete the tabular data for this
system.
Solution:
and that Q1 = Q2 = (Q3 + Q4) = 1.5 Q3
CONTINUITY EQUATIONS FOR THREE-DIMENSIONAL
FLOW USING CARTESIAN COORDINATES

Above equation holds for every point in a fluid flow

whether steady or unsteady, compressible or
incompressible. However, for incompressible flow, the
density ρ is constant and the equation simplifies to
Example: The velocity distribution for the flow of an
incompressible fluid is given by vx = 3 − x, vy = 4 + 2y,
vz = 2 − z. Show that this satisfies the requirements of
the continuity equation.

which satisfies the requirement for continuity.