Periodicity and Chemical

Bonding
(CHY3301)
Dr. Tan Yen Ping
Blok A1 Room 421
[email protected]
016-6166086

Google classroom code: qot4giy

 Periodic Table
The Development of the Periodic Table
 Chapter Goals

1. History and development of

periodic table
2. Effective nuclear charge
3. Atomic & ionic radius
4. Ionization Energy
5. Electron Affinity
6. Electronegativity

3
Key to the Periodic Table
• Elements are organized on the
table according to their atomic
number, usually found near the
top of the square.
– The atomic number refers to
how many protons an atom
of that element has.
– For instance, hydrogen has 1
proton, so it’s atomic number
is 1.
– The atomic number is unique
to that element. No two
elements have the same
atomic number.
 What’s in a square?

• Different periodic tables

can include various bits of
information, but usually:
– atomic number
– symbol
– atomic mass
– number of valence
electrons
– state of matter at room
temperature
 Atomic Number

• This refers to how

many protons an
atom of that element
has.
• No two elements,
have the same number
of protons.

Bohr Model of Hydrogen Atom

Wave Model
 Atomic Mass

• Atomic Mass refers

to the “weight” of the
atom.
• It is derived at by
adding the number of
protons with the
number of neutrons. This is a helium atom. Its atomic
Hmass is 4 (protons plus neutrons).

What is its atomic number?

Atomic Mass and Isotopes
• While most atoms have the
same number of protons
and neutrons, some don’t.
• Some atoms have more or
less neutrons than protons.
These are called isotopes.
• An atomic mass number
with a decimal is the total
of the number of protons
plus the average number of
neutrons.
Atomic Mass Unit (AMU)

• The unit of
measurement for an
atom is an AMU. It
stands for atomic
mass unit.
• One AMU is equal to
the mass of one
proton.
 Atomic Mass Unit (AMU)

• There are
6 X 1023 or
600,000,000,000,000,000
,000,000 amus in one
gram.
• (Remember that electrons
are 2000 times smaller
than one amu).
 Symbols

• All elements have

C Carbon
their own unique
symbol.
• It can consist of a
single capital letter, or

Cu
a capital letter and one
or two lower case
letters.
Copper
Common Elements and Symbols
 Valence Electrons

• The number of valence

electrons an atom has
may also appear in a
square.
• Valence electrons are the
electrons in the outer
energy level of an atom.
• These are the electrons
that are transferred or
shared when atoms bond
together.
 Classification of Elements
• The system of classification is the arrangement of
elements based on similar chemical properties.
– The term period suggests that the elements show
regular patterns in their chemical properties
• The modern periodic table consists of 111 known elements,
with the prediction of 7 new elements to be discovered
• Elements up to and including Uranium are naturally
occurring .
• All the elements beyond Uranium have been synthesised by
chemists since 1940
 Where the elements come from?
• The ‘Big Bang’ theory suggests
that all the fundamental particles
in the universe were formed over
a very short time (a few seconds
or less) in a huge explosion that
occurred some 15 billion years
ago.

• How is He formed?
• What is the difference between
nuclear fission and nuclear
fusion?
Where the elements come from?
• Once a star has converted a large
fraction of its core mass to iron, it has
almost reached the end of its life
• The core of the star then begins to cool,
causing a violent gravitational collapse,
or implosion.
• Eventually the star explodes, spreading
its products throughout the universe.
• An exploding star is called a supernova
• A supernova can produce heavier
elements up to the size of the iron
nucleus by nuclear fusion reactions.
Larger stars can produce heavier atoms
The History of the Modern
Periodic Table
 During the nineteenth century,
chemists began to categorize the
elements according to similarities in
their physical and chemical
properties. The end result of these
studies was our modern periodic
table.
 Antoine Lavoisier
• Early classification of elements
– First person to attempt to sort
elements into groups
– First periodic table, which contained
33 elements
– Periodic table based on chemical
properties
– Some of these were later found to be
compounds
– The table did show a distinction
between metals and non-metals
 Johann Dobereiner
In 1829, he classified some elements into
groups of three, which he called triads.
The elements in a triad had similar chemical
properties and orderly physical properties.

(ex. Cl, Br, I and

Ca, Sr, Ba)

Model of triads
1780 - 1849
 William Odling
• Classification of elements into two
dimensions
– Found a horizontal connection between
the elements fluorine, oxygen, nitrogen
and carbon (first element in groups 1 – 4)
 John Newlands
In 1863, he suggested that elements be
arranged in “octaves” because he noticed (after
arranging the elements in order of increasing
atomic mass) that certain properties repeated
every 8th element.

Law of Octaves
1838 - 1898
 John Newlands

Newlands' claim to see a repeating pattern was

met with savage ridicule on its announcement.
His classification of the elements, he was told,
was as arbitrary as putting them in alphabetical
order and his paper was rejected for publication
by the Chemical Society.

1838 - 1898 Law of Octaves

 John Newlands
His law of octaves failed beyond the element
calcium.
 Dmitri Mendeleev
In 1869 he published a table of
the elements organized by
increasing atomic mass.

1834 - 1907
 Lothar Meyer
At the same time, he published his own
table of the elements organized by
increasing atomic mass.

1830 - 1895
Elements known at this time
• Both Mendeleev and Meyer arranged the
elements in order of increasing atomic mass.
• Both left vacant spaces where unknown
elements should fit.

But why is Mendeleev

called the “father of the
modern periodic table”
and not Meyer, or both?
Mendeleev...

• stated that if the atomic weight of an

element caused it to be placed in the wrong
group, then the weight must be wrong. (He
corrected the atomic masses of Be, In, and
U)
• was so confident in his table that he used it
to predict the physical properties of thre
elements that were yet unknown.
After the discovery of these unknown
elements between 1874 and 1885, and the
fact that Mendeleev’s predictions for Sc,
Ga, and Ge were amazingly close to the
actual values, his table was generally
accepted.
However, in spite of Mendeleev’s great
achievement, problems arose when new
elements were discovered and more
accurate atomic weights determined. By
looking at our modern periodic table, can
you identify what problems might have
caused chemists a headache?
Ar and K
Co and Ni
Te and I
Th and Pa
 John Rayleigh and William Ramsay
• The noble gases discovered
– Experiments on nitrogen eventually led to the
discovery of a new element that would not
react with anything. They named it
‘Argon’(meaning inactive)
– Ramsay went on to discovery He, Ne, Kr, Xe
– Their relative atomic masses and their lack of
chemical reactivity placed them in a group
called the inert gases
– Rn was later discovered by Friedrich Ernst
Dorn
 Henry Moseley
In 1913, through his work with X-rays, he
determined the actual nuclear charge
(atomic number) of the elements*. He
rearranged the elements in order of
increasing atomic number.
*“There is in the atom a fundamental
quantity which increases by regular steps
as we pass from each element to the
next. This quantity can only be the
charge on the central positive nucleus.”

1887 - 1915
 Henry Moseley
His research was halted when the British
government sent him to serve as a foot soldier
in WWI. He was killed in the fighting in
Gallipoli by a sniper’s bullet, at the age of 28.
Because of this loss, the British government
later restricted its scientists to noncombatant
duties during WWII.
 Glenn T. Seaborg
After co-discovering 10 new elements, in 1944
he moved 14 elements out of the main body of
the periodic table to their current location
below the Lanthanide series.
These became known as the Actinide series.

1912 - 1999
 Glenn T. Seaborg
He is the only person to have an element
named after him while still alive.

"This is the greatest honor ever

bestowed upon me - even better, I
think, than winning the Nobel Prize."

1912 - 1999
Periodic Table
Geography
The horizontal rows of the periodic
table are called PERIODS.
The elements in any
group of the periodic
table have similar
physical and chemical
properties

The vertical columns of the periodic

table are called GROUPS, or
FAMILIES.
 Periodic Law
When elements are arranged in order of
increasing atomic number, there is a
periodic pattern in their physical and
chemical properties.
Alkali Metals
Alkaline Earth Metals
Transition Metals
 These elements are also
called the rare-earth
elements.

InnerTransition Metals
Halogens
Noble Gases
 Groups and Blocks
• Based upon the electron configuration of
the elements the table can be divided into
four blocks.
• These blocks represent the different
sublevels of electron configuration.
– Group A elements are called
representative elements
– Group B elements are called transition
elements.
 The s and p block elements
are called
REPRESENTATIVE ELEMENTS.
 The d block elements
are called
TRANSITION ELEMENTS
 Groups and Blocks
• The s-block elements:
– Groups 1-2
– Electron configuration: ns1,2 (valence electrons
in the s subshell)
– Contains the alkali metals (Group 1), and
alkaline-earth metals (Group 2)
– Very reactive metals; Group 1 is more reactive
than Group 2, but both do not exist in nature as
free elements because they are too reactive.
– He has a filled s subshell of the innermost shell
of the atom rendering it unreactive.
 Groups and Blocks
• The d-block elements:
– Groups 3-12
– Electron configuration: (n-1)d1-10ns0-2 (valence
electrons in the p subshell)
– transition elements: typical metallic properties
– Good conductors of electricity and have a high
luster; less reactive than the s-block elements;
many exist in nature as free elements.
 Groups and Blocks
• The p-block elements:
– Groups 13-18
– Electron configuration: ns2np1-6 (valence
electrons in d subshells progressively filled
only after their next s subshell is filled)
– Combine with s-block elements to become the
main-group elements
– Includes nonmetals, metalloids, halogens
(Group 17), and noble gases (Group 18).
 Groups and Blocks
• The f-block elements:
– Lanthanides and Actinides
– Between Groups 3 and 4.
– Between Periods 6 and 7.
– 14 in each; highly similar properties; resemble
Group 2 elements.
– f subshells progressively filled
 Properties of Metals

• Metals are good conductors

of heat and electricity.
• Metals are shiny.
• Metals are ductile (can be
stretched into thin wires).
• Metals are malleable (can be
pounded into thin sheets).
• A chemical property of metal
is its reaction with water which
results in corrosion.
Properties of Non-Metals

• Non-metals are poor

conductors of heat and
electricity.
• Non-metals are not
ductile or malleable.
• Solid non-metals are
brittle and break easily.
• They are dull.
• Many non-metals are
Sulfur gases.
Properties of Metalloids

• Metalloids (metal-like) have

properties of both metals
and non-metals.
• They are solids that can be
shiny or dull.
• They conduct heat and
electricity better than non-
metals but not as well as
metals.
• They are ductile and
Silicon malleable.
 Families Periods
• Columns of elements are called • Each horizontal row of
groups or families. elements is called a period.
• Elements in each family have • The elements in a period
similar but not identical are not alike in properties.
properties. • In fact, the properties
• For example, lithium (Li), change greatly across even
sodium (Na), potassium (K), given row.
and other members of family IA • The first element in a period
are all soft, white, shiny metals. is always an extremely
• All elements in a family have active solid. The last
the same number of valence element in a period, is
electrons. always an inactive gas.
 Hydrogen

• The hydrogen square sits at top Family I, but

it is not a member of that family. Hydrogen is
in a class of its own.
• It’s a gas at room temperature.
• It has one proton and one electron in its
one and only energy level.
• Hydrogen only needs 2 electrons to fill up its
valence shell.
 Alkali Metals

• The alkali family is found in

the first column of the
periodic table.
• Atoms of the alkali metals
have a single electron in
their outermost level, in
other words, 1 valence
electron.
• They are shiny, have the
consistency of clay, and are
easily cut with a knife.
Alkali Metals

• They are the most

reactive metals.
• They react violently
with water.
• Alkali metals are
never found as free
elements in nature.
They are always
bonded with another
element.
 What does it mean to be reactive?
• We will be describing elements according to their
reactivity.
• Elements that are reactive bond easily with other
elements to make compounds.

• What makes an element reactive?

– An incomplete valence electron level.
– All atoms (except hydrogen) want to have 8 electrons in
their very outermost energy level (This is called the rule
of octet.)
– Atoms bond until this level is complete. Atoms with few
valence electrons lose them during bonding. Atoms with
6, 7, or 8 valence electrons gain electrons during
bonding.
5
 Alkaline Earth Metals
• They are never found uncombined in nature.
• They have two valence electrons.
• Alkaline earth metals include magnesium and
calcium, among others.
 Transition Metals

• Transition elements
include those elements in
the B families.
• These are the metals you
are probably most
familiar: copper, tin,
zinc, iron, nickel, gold,
and silver.
• They are good
conductors of heat and
electricity.
 Transition Metals
• The compounds of transition metals are usually
brightly colored and are often used to color paints.
• Transition elements have 1 or 2 valence electrons,
which they lose when they form bonds with other
atoms.
• Some transition elements can lose electrons in their
next-to-outermost level.
 Transition Elements
• Transition elements have properties similar to
one another and to other metals, but their
properties do not fit in with those of any other
family.
• Many transition metals combine chemically
with oxygen to form compounds called
oxides.
 Boron Family

• The Boron Family is

named after the first
element in the family.
• Atoms in this family have 3
valence electrons.
• This family includes a
metalloid (boron), and the
rest are metals.
• This family includes the
most abundant metal in the
earth’s crust (aluminum).
 Carbon Family

• Atoms of this family have 4

valence electrons.
• This family includes a non-metal
(carbon), metalloids, and metals.
• The element carbon is called the
“basis of life.”
• There is an entire branch of
chemistry devoted to carbon
compounds called organic
chemistry.
 Nitrogen Family
• The nitrogen family is named
after the element that makes
up 78% of our atmosphere.
• This family includes non-
metals, metalloids, and metals.
• Atoms in the nitrogen family
have 5 valence electrons.
They tend to share electrons
when they bond.
• Other elements in this family
are phosphorus, arsenic,
antimony, and bismuth.
 Oxygen Family

• Atoms of this family have 6

valence electrons.
• Most elements in this family
share electrons when
forming compounds.
• Oxygen is the most abundant
element in the earth’s crust.
• It is extremely active and
combines with almost all
elements.
 Halogen Family

• The elements in this family

are fluorine, chlorine,
bromine, iodine, and
astatine.
• Halogens have 7 valence
electrons, which explains
why they are the most
active non-metals. They are Halogen atoms only need
never found free in nature. to gain 1 electron to fill
their outermost energy
level.
They react with alkali
metals to form salts.
 Noble Gases
• Noble gases are colorless gases that
are extremely un-reactive.
• One important property of the noble
gases is their inactivity.
• They are inactive because their
outermost energy level is full.
• Because they do not readily combine
with other elements to form
compounds, the noble gases are
called inert.
• The family of noble gases includes
helium, neon, argon, krypton,
xenon, and radon.
• All the noble gases are found in small
amounts in the earth's atmosphere.
Rare Earth Elements

• The thirty rare earth

elements are composed
of the lanthanide and
actinide series.

• One element of the

lanthanide series and
most of the elements in
the actinide series are
called trans-uranium,
which means synthetic or
man-made.
The periodic table is the most important
tool in the chemist’s toolbox!