FORENSIC BALLISTICS

By: Darlito Bernard G. Delizo

 HISTORY OF BALLISTICS
“Ballistics” - Greek word “Ballo” or
“Ballien” mean “to throw”.
“Ballista” - a gigantic bow or
catapult which was used to hurl
large objects such as stones at a
particular distance to deter
animals or enemy forces.
BALLISTA
CATAPULT OR
ONAGER
 HISTORY OF BALLISTICS
 Today: frequently used
synonymously in the press
and in the Police Parlance
to Firearms Identification.
BALLISTICS is defined as the science of
motion of projectiles.
 Science - refers to the systematized
body of knowledge.
 Projectiles - the metallic or non-metallic
objects propelled from a firearm.
 Motions involved:
a. direct;
b. rotatory; and
c. translational
BALLISTICS is a science in itself
because it evolved from systematic
knowledge, research and development,
training, experience and education
 Technically: "science of firearms
identification which scientifically
examines ballistics exhibits:
1. fired bullets;
2. fired shells;
3. firearms; and
4. allied matters, used in crime.
 LEGAL DEFINITION OF
BALLISTICS

It is the microscopic
examination of fired cartridge
cases and bullets together with
the recording and presentation
by means of photography of
what is revealed by the
microscope.
CLASSICAL THEORY: It is the
scientific study of the
propulsion and motion of
projectiles such as bullets,
artillery shells, rockets and
guided missiles, and the
destructive action of such
projectiles.
GALILEO, NEWTON, and LEIBNIZ -
principles of dynamics and the
methods of calculus, studies which
helped the development of external
ballistics.
GALILEO and NEWTON - air
resistance (aerodynamic drag),
which reduces the speed of a
projectile.
1707, CASSINI, an astronomer
suggested measuring firearm’s
muzzle velocity.
AIR DRAG on a moving
projectile
 bow resistance - air pressure at the
head of the projectile;
 skin friction - friction of air moving
along the middle portion of the
body; and
 base drag - under-pressure and
disturbance  of the air behind the
base.
 BRANCHES OF BALLISTICS

 INTERIOR BALLISTICS TRANSITIONAL

 EXTERIOR BALLISTICS BALLISTICS

 TERMINAL BALLISTICS

A. SHOT BALLISTICS
B. WOUND BALLISTICS
 FORENSIC BALLISTICS
INTERIOR BALLISTICS
 The study of motion of projectiles
within the gun barrel.
 The time during which the projectile
is influenced by Interior Ballistics is
very short. From the release of the
firing pin to the moment the sound
of the shot can be heard as it leaves
the muzzle occupies only about 0.01
seconds, in a modern rifle.
 THINGS INVOLVED IN
INTERIOR BALLISTICS:
•Ignition of the primer.
•Flame is produced
•Combustion of the gunpowder
•Energy that is generated
•Force/Pressure developed
•Velocity of the bullet (chamber to
the muzzle)
•Rotation of the bullet
•Engraving of the cylindrical surface
of the bullet.
 ACTIONS INSIDE THE FIREARM

Cartridge going Cartridge in Firing pin forcefully

in chamber chamber strikes primer

Primer Gas from burning Gas pushes Speeding bullet

explodes, powder expands bullet out with exits barrel
ignites powder in cartridge force
 EXTERIOR BALLISTICS

 It deals with the motion of

projectiles from the time they leave
the muzzle of the firearm to the
time they hit the target.
 The flight of most bullet or
projectile does not exceed 30
seconds at maximum range, which
for almost any firearms is obtained
at an elevation of about 33.
CONDITIONS - refers to the natural
laws.
 velocity - speed per unit of time, ex.
M16 - 3,300 ft/sec.
 energy - fatal equivalent of a bullet.
 yaw - the unstable rotating motion of
a bullet.
 gyroscopic action - stillness of its
rotating motion and attained its
highest momentum or stability in
flight and penetrating power.
Elements that determine the path
of projectile:
 shape

 caliber

 weight

 initialvelocities
 rotation

 air resistance

 gravity
ATTRIBUTES & MOVEMENTS OF
THE BULLETS

Muzzle blast - noise created at the muzzle

point due to sudden escape of expanding
gas coming in contact with the air in the
surrounding at the muzzle point.
Muzzle energy - energy generated at the
muzzle point.
Trajectory - actual curved path of the bullet
during its flight from the gun muzzle to the
target. trajectory: straight horizontal line,
parabola-like flight; and vertical drop
BULLET’S TRAJECTORY

The trajectory of a bullet is slightly curved. If

 
you sight to hit a target at 200 yards, you
will hit your target high at 100 yards. You
 
 

will hit your target low at 300 yards.

BULLET’S TRAJECTORY
Factors affecting trajectory:

•Gravity results in a downward curved

path.
•Air resistance slows its flight.
•Mass is the weight of the bullet.
•Velocity is the speed of the bullet.
 

 
 
BULLET’S TRAJECTORY
BULLET’S TRAJECTORY
BULLET’S TRAJECTORY
BULLET’S TRAJECTORY
BULLET’S TRAJECTORY
 ATTRIBUTES & MOVEMENTS OF
THE BULLETS

Range - straight distance between the

muzzle point and the target.
Accurate (effective) range - distance
within the shooter has control of his
shots, he can place his shots at the
desired spots.
Maximum range - farthest distance
that a projectile can be propelled.
 ATTRIBUTES & MOVEMENTS OF
THE BULLETS

Ordinary pistol and revolver are

supposed to be effective in 50-70
yards.
All guns can send their bullets
much further than that and are
capable of inflicting fatal wounds
at distances up to one mile,
depending on the caliber and
gunpowder content.
RANGE & TRAJECTORY
RANGE & TRAJECTORY
Ranges of Rifle Ammunition
Ranges of Handgun Ammunition
(Some rifles can use pistol cartridges.)
Ranges of Shotgun Ammunition
 ATTRIBUTES & MOVEMENTS OF THE
BULLETS

Velocity - rate of speed of the

bullet per unit of time.

Long barrel rifle – up to 3,000

yards accurate range and its hinge
muzzle velocity of 1000-4000
ft./sec.
 ATTRIBUTES & MOVEMENTS OF THE
BULLETS
Bullets from rifled weapons spin at
2000-3000 revolutions per second, but
over the first few yards of trajectory –
distance varies with the weapon – their
flight is slightly unstable; the end of the
projectile wobbles before it picks up a
smooth flight path called “TAILWAG”, and
is of considerable important in evaluating
gunshot wounds. A bullet with “tailwag”
does not strike its target clearly.
 ATTRIBUTES & MOVEMENTS OF THE
BULLETS

Air resistance - resistance

encountered while in flight.
Pull of gravity - downward pull
while in flight.
Penetration - depth of entry on
target.
 TERMINAL BALLISTICS
The study dealing with the effect of
the impact of the bullet on the target.
Terminal accuracy - size of the bullet
grouping on the target.
Terminal energy - energy of the
projectile when it strikes the target,
a.k.a. as striking energy.
Terminal penetration - depth of entry
of the bullet in the target.
Terminal velocity - speed of the bullet
upon striking the target.
Terminal ballistics also deals with
the destructive actions and effects
that occur at the end of the
projectile's flight as an integral and
undeformed body. The flight may
end in one of two ways:
1.the projectile may strike a solid
obstruction, or
2.its metal case may be broken by the
explosion of a bursting charge.
Modern Application
 SHOTS BALLISTICS
It deals with the attributes and properties of
shots and pellets.

When a shotshell is fired from a

shotgun, the pellets leave the barrel
and begin to spread or scatter. The
farther the pellets travel, the greater
the spread of shot. Shotgun barrels
have a choke to control the spread or
shot pattern.
 SHOTS BALLISTICS

Choke: The degree of narrowing at

the muzzle end of the shotgun
barrel
Shot pattern: The spread of shot
pellets after they hit a non-moving
target
 CHOKE
 It acts like the nozzle of a garden hose.
As the nozzle is tightened, water shoots
out in a long, narrow stream, similar to
the full choke on a shotgun. As the nozzle
is opened, similar to the cylinder choke
on a shotgun, water shoots out in a wider
spray.
 Your distance from the target determines
the choke you need. The choke does not
alter the shotgun’s power—it just controls
how tight or spread out the shot pattern
will be at a specific distance.
 The spread effect of the most common
chokes is illustrated below.
Shot Spread - is determined by a constriction or
narrowing at the muzzle called "a choke."

This produces a tight pattern. suitable

for longer ranges. Pattern is too dense
and small for hunting at close range.

This produces a more open pattern,

suitable for medium ranges.
Recommended for upland hunting.

This produces an even more open

pattern, suitable for short ranges. At
longer ranges, the shot pattern is too
thin to ensure hits.
This produces the most open pattern,
suitable for shortest ranges. At longer
range, pattern is too thin to ensure hits.
 WOUND BALLISTICS
It is the study of the effects of projectile to
human body.

Gunshot Wound (GSW) - an open wound

produced by the penetration of bullet slug within
the tissues of the body.

Kinds of GSW Distinguished by the Proximity

of the Weapon:
 Contact – gun muzzle pressed against, or
within an inch or two, of the body.
 Close discharge – 6 inches to 2 ft.
 Distance Discharge – over 2 ft. or 3 ft.
 Gunshot Wound Characteristics
 Muzzle Pattern – indicates contact wound and are
often observed in suicide cases; edges are found
ragged (torn in star shape) and the wound is like an
exit wound.
 Scorching – caused by the flame or hot gases not
by the hot projectiles as is commonly believed; also
known as burning or charring.
 Blackening – caused by the deposition of smoke
particles by all types of powders at close ranges.
 Tattooing (a.k.a. peppering) – caused by the
embedding of unburnt and semiburnt powder
particles into the surface of the target.
 Other GSW Characteristics:
 Pink Coloration – caused by absorbed carbon
monoxide in the skin and flesh.
 Dirt Ring – deposited by some projectile (which
carry greases on them) around the wound.
Existence of this indicates the entrance side of a
firearm injury.
 Contusion – caused by the impact of the projectile
(reddish dark to bluish black - varies somewhat with
the age of the injury). It takes the form of a belt
around the wound. It is of uniform in thickness.
 Foreign Materials – Their presence not only
permits the identification of the firearms injury but
they also permit a fairly reliable guess of firearm.
 Factors influencing entrance and
exit gunshot wounds:
 Kind of weapon - higher power, the more destruction
 Caliber of the weapon - higher caliber, greater the size of the wound of
entrance, hence, greater destruction to the tissues.
 Shape and composition - conical shape free end of the bullet slug has more
penetrating power but less tissue destruction, while bullet slug with
hemispherical free end had less penetrating but more destruction to the tissues.
Deforming bullets (dumdum, hallow point) causes more destruction.
Fragmentary bullets may cause further injury. The tracer bullet may cause
burning upon hitting the body.
 Range of fire - in long range fire, the characteristic effect of the bullet alone
will produce the injury.
 Direction of fire - right angle: round shape wound, acute angle: oval shape
wound
 Part of the body involved: soft tissues of the body, the bullet penetrates and
usually without any change in direction, however upon hitting the bones and
other hard body structures the bullet may fracture the bones causing further
injury or may deflect to another direction.
Shotgun Wound.
Contact fire - irregular with bursting of the
affected tissues due to explosion of the heated and
expanded with accompanying flame causing burning of
the skin and the tissues; singeing of the hair; presence
of wads and particles of gunpowder inside the wound
of entrance.
Near shot up to six inches distance: there is
marked laceration of the skin and destruction of
tissues due to the pressure of explosion; burning on
the surface of the skin and particles of gunpowder are
present inside and around the wound of entrance;
singeing of the hair as well as pieces of wads inside
and outside the wound of entrance.
Distance about one yard: pellets penetrate the
tissues as one mass making the wound with irregular
edge; blackening of tissues with slight burning,
singeing of the hair or gunpowder tattooing.
Distance about two to three yards: has a big
central hole with ragged edges and a few stray
wounds of entrance around the central hole; no more
blackening or burning of the skin, gunpowder
tattooing, singeing of the hair and pieces of wads or
near the wound of entrance.
Distance of four yards: small group of pellets may
penetrate the tissues producing a central core,
although plenty of pellets in a wider dispersion may
produced separate wound of entrance; pellets
dispersed about one and a half the distance in yards in
non-choked barrel while in full-choked bore the disper­
sion is one half less but there is a wider dispersion in
What Is a Firearm?

 A firearm is a mechanical device that

uses pressure from a burning powder
to force a projectile through and out of
a metal tube.
EVOLUTION OF FIREARMS

A. FIRST FIREARMS
 Origin is unknown

 Man’s desire to increase the range of

his weapons
 Started with catapults and ballistae

 Led to the discovery of gunpowders

THE GUNPOWDER 7 THE DFEVELOPMENT OF FIREARMS
 Berthhold Schwarz, 1313 – first used of gunpowder to a weapon called
‘pots de fer’ & ‘vasi’ in Ghent, Belgium: most describes these weapons as
first cannons
 English manuscript, ‘De Officils Regnum’ (On the Duties of Kings), 1326 –
there is illustration of a small cannon being fired
 King Edward III, 1346 – ‘bombard’ (ancient cannon initially made of
wooden or iron staves bound with hoops, later strengthened with iron and
finally cast metals) – battle of Crecy known as Hundred Year’s War
 Mid-14th century – bombards were of cast bronze
 Augsburg, Germany – first cast bronze
 Closing of 14th century – ‘hand gonne’ appeared, a development of
‘ridaudequin’ in 1830
 ‘Hand gonne’ – number of small caliber cannon barrels mounted on a light
cart
 Taking one of the small barrel to be carried by one man led to the first
portable handgun
 Miniature artillery called ‘hand cannons’
EARLY FIREARMS
A. FIRELOCK, 14th century – a simple,
smooth-bore tube of iron, closed at
the breech end except for an opening
called a touchhole.
 Tube is loaed with shot and powder
 Fired by inserting a heated wire into
the touchhole
 Later – it has flashpan, a saucer-like
depression in the barrel at the outer
end of the touchhole
B. MATCHLOCK, 15th century – a type of
musket, essentially similar to the firelock
except that the slow match was clamped in
the top of a device called serpentine – an S-
shaped metal
 Because only one finger is needed, it
allowed the holding of another hand for
aiming
 Harquebus (arquebus) – primitive portable
fiream in 15th and 16th century composed of
a barrel fitted in a long bent stock
C. WHEEL-LOCK (1515)– firing mechanism is
consisted of a spring-driven wheel
 Releasing the wheel by a trigger, it rotates
and the hardened steel rim rubs a lump of
iron pyrites
 Sparks are produced igniting the gunpowder
in the priming pan
 Was not generally accepted because of its
complicated and expensive mechanism
 Contemporarily, gunsmith introduced rifled
barrels
D. SNAPHANCE, 17th century – the
firing mechanism consisted of a
hammer powered by a trigger spring
and bearing a piec of flint
 Pulling the trigger, the hammer struck
the flint against a serrated steel striker
plate located above the priming pan
producing a shower of spark
E. FLINLOCK – resembled the snaphance,
except the striker was L-shaped
 Bottom limb of the L was used as a cover
for the priming pan, protecting the powder
from moisture
 Upper limb was struck by the flint of the
hammer producing a shower of sparks when
the powder is uncovered
 Prevailing firearm from end of 17th century
to mid-19th century
THE FLINTLOCK SYSTEM
PERCUSSION CAP
 1850, this system was introduced.
 A percussion cap contains a chemical
that causes a spark when struck.
 This spark ignites the main black
powder charge in the bore.
 This allowed for quicker reloading and
worked better in poor weather
conditions compared to the flintlock
system.  
THE PERCUSSION CAP SYSTEM
HOW THE MODERN FIREARMS WORK?
 Basic Parts of a Firearm
Three basic groups of parts
 Action: The heart of the firearm—the moving parts
that load, fire, and eject the shells or cartridges.
Several types of actions are used in modern
firearms. Muzzleloaders have locks instead of
actions.
 Stock: Serves as the handle of the firearm. It can
be composed of one or two pieces and is usually
made of wood or a synthetic material.
 Barrel: The metal tube that the projectile travels
through (bullets travel through the barrels of rifles
and handguns; shot travels through the barrel of
shotguns).
HANDGUNS
 What Is Ammunition?
 Modern ammunition varies depending on the type of
firearm. Rifles and handguns use a cartridge containing
a single projectile (bullet). Shotguns use a shotshell
containing either a single slug or a large number of small
projectiles (shot). However, the basic components of
cartridges and shotshells are very similar.

Cartridge: Ammunition used in modern rifles and

handguns; a case containing primer, gunpowder, and a
bullet

Shotshell: Ammunition used in modern shotguns; a

case containing primer, gunpowder, wad, and a slug or
shot
 Basic Components of Ammunition
 Case: The container that holds all the other ammunition components
together. It’s usually made of brass, steel, copper, paper, or plastic.
 Primer: An explosive chemical compound that ignites the gunpowder when
struck by a firing pin. Primer may be placed either in the rim of the case
(rimfire) or in the center of the base of the case (centerfire).
 Gunpowder: A chemical mixture that burns very rapidly and converts to an
expanding gas when ignited. Modern smokeless powder will burn slowly
when ignited in the open (outside of the case). Black powder is less stable
and can be explosive when ignited in the open.
 Projectile: The object(s) expelled from the barrel. A bullet is a lead
projectile fired through a rifle or handgun barrel. A slug is a lead projectile
fired through a shotgun barrel. Shot is a group of lead, steel, tungsten, or
bismuth pellets fired through a shotgun barrel.
 Wad (for shotguns only): A seal made of paper or plastic separating the
powder from the slug or shot in a shotshell. The wad prevents gas from
escaping through the shot and holds the shot together as it passes through
the barrel.
Rifle and Handgun Projectiles
 Bullets used in rifle and handgun cartridges
come in various designs, sizes, and weights.
The bullet is made of lead but sometimes has
a copper jacket.
 Bullets used for hunting game may have soft
or hollow points designed to expand
(mushroom) upon impact.
 Bullets used for target shooting usually have
solid points that make smaller holes.
 Common types of rifle bullets:
 Pointed Soft Point: High velocity, accurate
bullets with a flat travel path (trajectory);
excellent mushrooming
 Rounded Soft Point: Popular for low-velocity
calibers; recommended for tubular magazines
 Protected Tip: Highly accurate with excellent
expansion
 Full Metal Jacket: Maximum penetration
without mushrooming; these bullets are illegal
for big game hunting in most states
Common types of handgun bullets:

 Roundnose Lead: Good penetration,

little expansion
 Full Metal Jacket: No expansion, high
penetration
 Semi-Wad Cutter: Balances penetration
and expansion
 Hollowpoint: Designed for high
expansion on impact
 Wad Cutter: Flat-ended, used for target
shooting; creates clean hole in paper
Centerfire and Rimfire Ammunition
 Centerfire ammunition is used for rifles,
shotguns, and handguns. In this type of
ammunition, the primer is located in the center
of the casing base. Most centerfire ammunition
is reloadable.
 Rimfire ammunition has the primer contained in
the rim of the ammunition casing. Rimfire
ammunition is limited to low-pressure loads.
Rimfire cartridges are not reloadable.

In tubular magazines, the bullet tip of one cartridge rests

directly on the primer of the cartridge immediately ahead.
For this reason, use only rounded or blunt tips in tubular
magazines.
 Shotshells
 Shotgun shells (shotshells) use a slug or shot
as the projectile(s).
 A slug is a lead projectile used for hunting big
game with a shotgun.
 Shot are multiple pellets fired through a
shotgun barrel. Shot size is adaptable to the
game being hunted. This type of projectile is
typically used to hunt game birds and small
game animals.
Gauge: Term used to designate bore
diameter of a shotgun; gauge is the
number of lead balls with diameters
equal to the diameter of the bore that,
when combined, weigh one pound

The shotshells must match the gauge and

shell length specified by the manufacturer
exactly. This information is usually found
on the barrel of the shotgun. Shotguns
may be chambered for 2¾-inch, 3-inch, or
3½-inch shells. This refers to the length of
the shell after it has been fired
 Shot size is adaptable to the game being hunted. As
pellet diameter decreases, more shot can be placed in a
standard shotshell load. The smaller the shot number, the
larger the shot size.

 As pellet diameter decreases, more shot can be

placed in a standard shotshell.
 The smaller the shot "number," the larger the
pellet diameter.
 Shotshell marked as "magnum" means the shell
has more shot or more gunpowder than a regular
shell. Magnum and regular shotshells are
interchangeable if the correct gauge and shell
length are used.
 How a Firearm Works?
 The same physical process is used to fire
shotshells from shotguns or cartridges from rifles
or handguns.
 Pulling the trigger causes the firing pin to strike
and explode the primer in the base of the
cartridge or shotshell.
 The spark from the primer ignites the gunpowder,
which burns rapidly and converts to a gas.
 The gas rapidly expands and drives the
projectile(s) through the barrel with great force.
How the rifle and handgun fire:
1. A cartridge is inserted into the chamber.
2. The action is closed, and the firing pin is pushed back and
held back under spring tension.
3. The trigger is squeezed, releasing the firing pin, which
moves forward with great force. The firing pin strikes the
primer, causing it to explode.
4. The spark from the primer ignites the gunpowder. Gas
converted from the burning powder rapidly expands in the
cartridge.
5. The expanding gas forces the bullet out of the cartridge and
down the barrel with great speed.
6. The rifling in the barrel causes the bullet to spin as it travels
out of the barrel. The bullet's speed and escaping gases
produce a "bang."
 How the shotgun fires:
 A shotshell is inserted into the chamber.
 The action is closed, and the firing pin is pushed back
and held back under spring tension.
 The trigger is pulled, causing the firing pin to strike the
primer producing a spark.
 The spark from the primer ignites the gunpowder. Gas
converted from the burning powder expands in the shell.
 The gas pushes the wad against the shot; the wad and
shot are forced out of the plastic body of the shell.
 The wad and shot leave the barrel. The escaping gases
produce a "bang."
 The shot and wad separate. The shot cluster spreads and
forms a pattern.
 How Ammunition is Fired?
The firing sequence for handguns and shotguns
is very similar to this sequence shown for a bolt-
action rifle.

The bolt moves forward, compressing the firing pin

spring and inserting a cartridge into the chamber.
The firing pin is held back under spring tension.

When the trigger is pulled, the firing pin moves

forward, crushing and igniting the primer in the
cartridge base.
The primer ignites the gunpowder,
generating gas pressure, which forces
the bullet forward and out of the barrel.
 Common Features of
Firearms
All types of firearms have:
actions
sights
safeties
magazines
 Firearm Actions
• Firearms can be classified by their action type.
• The action of a firearm is made up of parts that
load, unload, fire, and eject the shotshell or
cartridge.
• Actions are either singleshot or repeating styles.
1. Singleshot firearms must be reloaded each time
the firearm is fired.
2. Repeating firearms have extra cartridges or
shotshells ready in a magazine, cylinder, or
extra barrel.
Bolt Action:
It operates like opening and closing a door bolt. The
bolt solidly locks into the breech, making it accurate
and dependable.

 To open the action, lift the handle up and pull it

to the rear.
 If the firearm is loaded, the cartridge or shotshell
will be ejected as you pull the bolt to the rear.
 To make sure it’s unloaded, visually check both
the open action and the magazine for extra
cartridges or shotshells.
 You can store a bolt-action firearm safely by
storing the bolt separately from the firearm.
Bolt Action Firearms
Lever Action:
It has a large metal lever located behind the trigger.
This handle usually forms the trigger guard as well.
 To open the action, push the lever downward and forward,
which extracts the cartridge case from the chamber and
ejects it. If a magazine holds extra cartridges, another is
immediately ready to be loaded into the chamber.
 It’s often difficult to tell if a lever-action firearm is loaded. To
unload, push the lever downward and forward repeatedly
until no more cartridges are ejected.
 To make sure it’s unloaded, visually check both the chamber
and the magazine for additional cartridges.
 Most models also have an exposed hammer, which can be
dangerous.
 Always use extra caution to keep your hands away from the
trigger while working the lever action.
Lever Action Firearms
Pump Action:
It is fast and smooth. It allows the shooter to re-cock
the firearm without taking his or her eye off the target.
It is also referred to as “slide action” or “trombone
action.”
 To open the action, slide the forestock to the rear,
which extracts the cartridge from the chamber and
ejects it. Sliding the forestock toward the muzzle
closes the action and readies another cartridge for
loading. It will open only after it’s fired or if a
release lever is pressed and the forestock is pulled
to the rear.
 To make sure it’s unloaded, you must visually check
both the chamber and the magazine for
cartridges.
Pump Action Firearms
Semi-Automatic (or Autoloading)

Action:
As each shot is fired manually, the case of the
cartridge or shotshell is ejected automatically and the
chamber is reloaded automatically.
 To open the action, you must pull back the bolt’s operating handle (on a rifle or
shotgun) or the slide (on a pistol). Most, when the bolt or slide is pulled back,
will lock in the open position if the magazine is empty. If the firearm does not
lock open, it means that a cartridge from the magazine has gone into the
chamber, making the firearm ready to fire. A few do not lock open and must be
held open to check the chamber.
 To unload, first remove the magazine and lock the action open. Then make
sure it’s unloaded—visually check the chamber for an additional cartridge or
shell.
 When closing the action for loading, pull back to unlock the bolt or slide and
then let go, allowing it to travel forward on its own. Do not guide it forward with
your hand, because it may not seat properly.
 On semia-utomatic, the trigger must be pulled each time a shot is fired. This
makes it different from the fully-automatic firearm, which fires continuously as
long as the trigger is held down. The fully-automatic firearm may not be
used for hunting or sport shooting.
Semi-Automatic (or
Autoloading) Firearms
Break (or Hinge) Action:
It operates on the same principle as a door hinge. Simple to
load and unload, a hinge action is often chosen as a hunter’s
first firearm.

 To open the action, point the barrel(s) at the ground. A

release is pressed, and the stock drops downward. This
allows the cartridges or shotshells to eject or to be
removed manually if the firearm is loaded.
 Hinge-action firearms have a separate barrel for each
shot rather than a magazine. Most models have one or
two barrels, but some have up to four.
 Some models also have an exposed hammer(s), which
can be dangerous.
Break (or Hinge) Action Firearms
Revolving Action:
It takes its name from a revolving cylinder containing a
number of cartridge chambers. One chamber at a time
lines up with the barrel as the firearm is fired. Revolving
cylinders may rotate either clockwise or counter-clockwise,
depending on the manufacturer. This type of action is
usually found on handguns but may be found on some
older rifles.
 Single Action: Will fire only after the
hammer has been cocked manually.
 Double Action: Pulling the trigger both
cocks and releases the hammer. Typically, it
also can be hammer-cocked like a single-
action revolver.
TYPICAL HANDGUN ACTIONS
 Common Actions on Firearms
Common Actions on Common Actions on
Rifles Shotguns
Singleshot rifles are usually Shotguns use many of the
break or bolt actions. same actions as rifles—the
Repeating rifles include the pump action, semi-
bolt-action, lever-action, automatic and bolt action.
pump-action, and semi- They also use a break action
automatic types. Operating as either a single barrel or
the lever, bolt, or forestock double barrels. The double
ejects the empty cartridge barrels can be arranged
case, chambers a new round horizontally (side-by-side) or
of ammunition, and cocks vertically (over-under).
the gun.
 S
R H
I O
F T
L G
E U
S N
S
 Safety Mechanisms
 It is a device that blocks the action to prevent the
firearm from shooting until the safety is released
or pushed to the “off” position.
 It is intended to prevent the firearm from being
fired accidentally. However, safeties should never
be relied on totally to protect against accidental
shooting. Safeties are mechanical devices and
subject to mechanical failure from wear and other
factors, and can fail when least expected. Also,
safeties can be bumped from the safe position
unknowingly as your firearm is being handled or
as it catches on clothing or tree branches.
 All safeties are located around the receiver of the
firearm and are usually easy to spot.
 Cross-Bolt Safety

 Common on pump and semi-automatic firearms

 A simple push-button action that blocks the
trigger or hammer
 Usually located at the trigger guard or ahead of
the hammer
 Pivot Safety

 Common on handguns and bolt-action rifles

 A pivoting lever or tab that blocks the trigger or
firing pin
 Located on the frame (blocks trigger) or on the bolt
or slide (blocks firing pin)
 Slide or Tang Safety

 Common on some rifles and break-action shotguns

 A sliding bar or button that blocks the firing action
 Located on the tang (a metal strip behind the
receiver) of break-action firearms or on the side of
the receiver on some rifles
 Half-Cock or Hammer Safety
 Common on firearms with
exposed hammers
 Positions the trigger at half-
cock, away from the firing pin
 Engaged by placing the trigger
at half-cock; some firearms
automatically rebound to the
half-cock position after the
trigger is released
 While not a true safety, it
sometimes is described as a
mechanical safety device by
firearm manufacturers