Chapter 3 – Agile Software

Development

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 Topics covered
• Agile methods
• Agile development techniques
• Agile project management
• Scaling agile methods

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 What is an Agile development?

• Agile development is an iterative

software-development methodology
which teams use in projects. Self-
organized, cross-functional teams
frequently analyze circumstances and
user needs to adapt projects. Scrum
teams constantly improve quality in
sprints with short-term deliverables.
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 Agile development
• Program specification, design and
implementation are inter-leaved
• The system is developed as a series of versions or
increments with stakeholders involved in version
specification and evaluation
• Frequent delivery of new versions for evaluation
• Extensive tool support (e.g. automated testing
tools) used to support development.
• Minimal documentation – focus on working code

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Plan-driven and agile development

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Plan-driven and agile development
• Plan-driven development
– A plan-driven approach to software engineering is based
around separate development stages with the outputs to be
produced at each of these stages planned in advance.
– Not necessarily waterfall model – plan-driven, incremental
development is possible
– Iteration occurs within activities.
• Agile development
– Specification, design, implementation and testing are inter-
leaved and the outputs from the development process are
decided through a process of negotiation during the
software development process.
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 Agile methods

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 Agile methods
• Dissatisfaction with the overheads involved in software design
methods of the 1980s and 1990s led to the creation of agile
methods. These methods:
– Focus on the code rather than the design
– Are based on an iterative approach to software development
– Are intended to deliver working software quickly and evolve this
quickly to meet changing requirements.
• The aim of agile methods is to reduce overheads in the
software process (e.g. by limiting documentation) and to be
able to respond quickly to changing requirements without
excessive rework.

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 The principles of agile methods

Principle Description
Customer involvement Customers should be closely involved throughout the
development process. Their role is provide and prioritize new
system requirements and to evaluate the iterations of the
system.
Incremental delivery The software is developed in increments with the customer
specifying the requirements to be included in each increment.

People not process The skills of the development team should be recognized and
exploited. Team members should be left to develop their own
ways of working without prescriptive processes.

Embrace change Expect the system requirements to change and so design the
system to accommodate these changes.

Maintain simplicity Focus on simplicity in both the software being developed and
in the development process. Wherever possible, actively work  
to eliminate complexity from the system.

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 Agile method applicability
• Product development where a software company is
developing a small or medium-sized product for
sale.
– Virtually all software products and apps are now
developed using an agile approach
• Custom system development within an organization,
where there is a clear commitment from the
customer to become involved in the development
process and where there are few external rules and
regulations that affect the software.

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 Agile development techniques

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 Extreme programming
• A very influential agile method, developed in
the late 1990s, that introduced a range of
agile development techniques.
• Extreme Programming (XP) takes an ‘extreme’
approach to iterative development.
– New versions may be built several times per day;
– Increments are delivered to customers every 2
weeks;
– All tests must be run for every build and the build
is only accepted if tests run successfully.

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The extreme programming release cycle

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Extreme programming practices (a)
Principle or practice Description
Incremental planning Requirements are recorded on story cards and the stories to be
included in a release are determined by the time available and
their relative priority. The developers break these stories into
development ‘Tasks’. See Figures 3.5 and 3.6.

Small releases The minimal useful set of functionality that provides business
value is developed first. Releases of the system are frequent
and incrementally add functionality to the first release.

Simple design Enough design is carried out to meet the current requirements
and no more.
Test-first development An automated unit test framework is used to write tests for a
new piece of functionality before that functionality itself is
implemented.
Refactoring All developers are expected to refactor the code continuously as
soon as possible code improvements are found. This keeps the
code simple and maintainable.
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Extreme programming practices (b)

Pair programming Developers work in pairs, checking each other’s work and
providing the support to always do a good job.
Collective ownership The pairs of developers work on all areas of the system, so that
no islands of expertise develop and all the developers take
responsibility for all of the code. Anyone can change anything.
Continuous integration As soon as the work on a task is complete, it is integrated into
the whole system. After any such integration, all the unit tests in
the system must pass.
Sustainable pace Large amounts of overtime are not considered acceptable as
the net effect is often to reduce code quality and medium term
productivity
On-site customer A representative of the end-user of the system (the customer)
should be available full time for the use of the XP team. In an
extreme programming process, the customer is a member of the
development team and is responsible for bringing system
requirements to the team for implementation.
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 XP and agile principles
• Incremental development is supported through small,
frequent system releases.
• Customer involvement means full-time customer engagement
with the team.
• People not process through pair programming, collective
ownership and a process that avoids long working hours.
• Change supported through regular system releases.
• Maintaining simplicity through constant refactoring of code.

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 Influential XP practices
• Extreme programming has a technical focus and is not
easy to integrate with management practice in most
organizations.
• Consequently, while agile development uses practices
from XP, the method as originally defined is not widely
used.
• Key practices
– User stories for specification
– Refactoring
– Test-first development
– Pair programming
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 User stories for requirements
• In XP, a customer or user is part of the XP team and is
responsible for making decisions on requirements.
• User requirements are expressed as user stories or
scenarios.
• These are written on cards and the development team
break them down into implementation tasks. These
tasks are the basis of schedule and cost estimates.
• The customer chooses the stories for inclusion in the
next release based on their priorities and the schedule
estimates.

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 User Story

ID User Stories

E2F1U1 As a Banking Customer, I want to access/view summary of my savings account, so that I

know my balance and other details
E2F2U1 As a Banking Customer, I want to Login to Net banking so that I can view credit card
details
E2F4U1 As a Banking Customer, I want to transfer funds within my own accounts so that I can
move some balance across my accounts
E2F4U2 As a Banking Customer, I want to transfer funds from my account to another account in
another bank, so that  I can send money to my family and friends who have accounts in
other banks

E2F4U3 As a Banking Customer, I want to add beneficiary to my account, so that I can transfer
funds to the beneficiary

2TU1 As a Net Banking Administrator, I want to have the customer’s data backed up so that I
can restore it any time in case of issues

E2TU2 As a Net Banking application, I want to shake hands with another bank using a specific
formatted XML so that funds can be transferred based on the customers’ needs
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 A ‘prescribing medication’ story

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Examples of task cards for prescribing medication

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 Refactoring
• Conventional wisdom in software engineering
is to design for change. It is worth spending
time and effort anticipating changes as this
reduces costs later in the life cycle.
• XP, however, maintains that this is not
worthwhile as changes cannot be reliably
anticipated.
• Rather, it proposes constant code
improvement (refactoring) to make changes
easier when they have to be implemented.
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 Refactoring
• Programming team look for possible software
improvements and make these improvements even
where there is no immediate need for them.
• This improves the understandability of the
software and so reduces the need for
documentation.
• Changes are easier to make because the code is
well-structured and clear.
• However, some changes requires architecture
refactoring and this is much more expensive.
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 Examples of refactoring
• Re-organization of a class hierarchy to remove
duplicate code.
• Tidying up and renaming attributes and
methods to make them easier to understand.
• The replacement of inline code with calls to
methods that have been included in a
program library.

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 Test-first development
• Testing is central to XP and XP has developed an
approach where the program is tested after every
change has been made.
• XP testing features:
– Test-first development.
– Incremental test development from scenarios.
– User involvement in test development and validation.
– Automated test harnesses are used to run all
component tests each time that a new release is built.

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 Test-driven development
• Writing tests before code clarifies the requirements to be implemented.
• Tests are written as programs rather than data so that they can be
executed automatically. The test includes a check that it has executed
correctly.
– Usually relies on a testing framework such as Junit.
• All previous and new tests are run automatically when new functionality is
added, thus checking that the new functionality has not introduced errors.

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 Customer involvement
• The role of the customer in the testing process is to
help develop acceptance tests for the stories that are to
be implemented in the next release of the system.
• The customer who is part of the team writes tests as
development proceeds. All new code is therefore
validated to ensure that it is what the customer needs.
• However, people adopting the customer role have
limited time available and so cannot work full-time with
the development team. They may feel that providing
the requirements was enough of a contribution and so
may be reluctant to get involved in the testing process.
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Test case description for dose checking

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 Test automation
• Test automation means that tests are written as
executable components before the task is implemented
– These testing components should be stand-alone, should
simulate the submission of input to be tested and should check
that the result meets the output specification. An automated
test framework (e.g. Junit) is a system that makes it easy to write
executable tests and submit a set of tests for execution.
• As testing is automated, there is always a set of tests that
can be quickly and easily executed
– Whenever any functionality is added to the system, the tests can
be run and problems that the new code has introduced can be
caught immediately.

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Problems with test-first development
• Programmers prefer programming to testing and
sometimes they take short cuts when writing tests. For
example, they may write incomplete tests that do not
check for all possible exceptions that may occur.
• Some tests can be very difficult to write incrementally.
For example, in a complex user interface, it is often
difficult to write unit tests for the code that implements
the ‘display logic’ and workflow between screens.
• It difficult to judge the completeness of a set of tests.
Although you may have a lot of system tests, your test
set may not provide complete coverage.
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 Pair programming
• Pair programming involves programmers working in
pairs, developing code together.
• This helps develop common ownership of code and spreads
knowledge across the team.
• It serves as an informal review process as each line of code is
looked at by more than 1 person.
• It encourages refactoring as the whole team can benefit from
improving the system code.

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 Pair programming
• In pair programming, programmers sit together at the
same computer to develop the software.
• Pairs are created dynamically so that all team members
work with each other during the development process.
• The sharing of knowledge that happens during pair
programming is very important as it reduces the overall
risks to a project when team members leave.
• Pair programming is not necessarily inefficient and there
is some evidence that suggests that a pair working
together is more efficient than 2 programmers working
separately.
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 Agile project management

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 Agile project management
• The principal responsibility of software project managers
is to manage the project so that the software is delivered
on time and within the planned budget for the project.
• The standard approach to project management is plan-
driven. Managers draw up a plan for the project showing
what should be delivered, when it should be delivered
and who will work on the development of the project
deliverables.
• Agile project management requires a different approach,
which is adapted to incremental development and the
practices used in agile methods.

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 Scrum
• Scrum is an agile method that focuses on managing
iterative development rather than specific agile practices.
• There are three phases in Scrum.
– The initial phase is an outline planning phase where you
establish the general objectives for the project and design the
software architecture.
– This is followed by a series of sprint cycles, where each cycle
develops an increment of the system.
– The project closure phase wraps up the project, completes
required documentation such as system help frames and user
manuals and assesses the lessons learned from the project.
•
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 Scrum terminology (a)

Scrum term Definition

Development team A self-organizing group of software developers, which should be no more

than 7 people. They are responsible for developing the software and other
essential project documents.
Potentially shippable The software increment that is delivered from a sprint. The idea is that this
product increment should be ‘potentially shippable’ which means that it is in a finished state and
no further work, such as testing, is needed to incorporate it into the final
product. In practice, this is not always achievable.

Product backlog This is a list of ‘to do’ items which the Scrum team must tackle. They may be
feature definitions for the software, software requirements, user stories or
descriptions of supplementary tasks that are needed, such as architecture
definition or user documentation.

Product owner An individual (or possibly a small group) whose job is to identify product
features or requirements, prioritize these for development and continuously
review the product backlog to ensure that the project continues to meet
critical business needs. The Product Owner can be a customer but might also
be a product manager in a software company or other stakeholder
representative.
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 Scrum terminology (b)

Scrum term Definition

Scrum A daily meeting of the Scrum team that reviews progress and prioritizes
work to be done that day. Ideally, this should be a short face-to-face
meeting that includes the whole team.

ScrumMaster The ScrumMaster is responsible for ensuring that the Scrum process is
followed and guides the team in the effective use of Scrum. He or she is
responsible for interfacing with the rest of the company and for ensuring
that the Scrum team is not diverted by outside interference. The Scrum
developers are adamant that the ScrumMaster should not be thought of
as a project manager. Others, however, may not always find it easy to
see the difference.

Sprint A development iteration. Sprints are usually 2-4 weeks long.

Velocity An estimate of how much product backlog effort that a team can cover in
a single sprint. Understanding a team’s velocity helps them estimate
what can be covered in a sprint and provides a basis for measuring
improving performance.

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 Scrum sprint cycle

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 The Scrum sprint cycle
• Sprints are fixed length, normally 2–4 weeks.
• The starting point for planning is the product
backlog, which is the list of work to be done
on the project.
• The selection phase involves all of the project
team who work with the customer to select
the features and functionality from the
product backlog to be developed during the
sprint.
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 The Sprint cycle
• Once these are agreed, the team organize themselves
to develop the software.
• During this stage the team is isolated from the
customer and the organization, with all
communications channelled through the so-called
‘Scrum master’.
• The role of the Scrum master is to protect the
development team from external distractions.
• At the end of the sprint, the work done is reviewed and
presented to stakeholders. The next sprint cycle then
begins.
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 Teamwork in Scrum
• The ‘Scrum master’ is a facilitator who arranges daily
meetings, tracks the backlog of work to be done, records
decisions, measures progress against the backlog and
communicates with customers and management outside
of the team.
• The whole team attends short daily meetings (Scrums)
where all team members share information, describe
their progress since the last meeting, problems that have
arisen and what is planned for the following day.
– This means that everyone on the team knows what is going on
and, if problems arise, can re-plan short-term work to cope
with them.
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 Scrum benefits
• The product is broken down into a set of
manageable and understandable chunks.
• Unstable requirements do not hold up progress.
• The whole team have visibility of everything and
consequently team communication is improved.
• Customers see on-time delivery of increments and
gain feedback on how the product works.
• Trust between customers and developers is
established and a positive culture is created in
which everyone expects the project to succeed.
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 Distributed Scrum

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 Scaling agile methods

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 Scaling agile methods
• Agile methods have proved to be successful for small
and medium sized projects that can be developed by a
small co-located team.
• It is sometimes argued that the success of these
methods comes because of improved communications
which is possible when everyone is working together.
• Scaling up agile methods involves changing these to
cope with larger, longer projects where there are
multiple development teams, perhaps working in
different locations.

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 Scaling out and scaling up
• ‘Scaling up’ is concerned with using agile methods for
developing large software systems that cannot be
developed by a small team.
• ‘Scaling out’ is concerned with how agile methods can
be introduced across a large organization with many
years of software development experience.
• When scaling agile methods it is importaant to
maintain agile fundamentals:
– Flexible planning, frequent system releases, continuous
integration, test-driven development and good team
communications.
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Practical problems with agile methods
• The informality of agile development is incompatible
with the legal approach to contract definition that is
commonly used in large companies.
• Agile methods are most appropriate for new software
development rather than software maintenance. Yet
the majority of software costs in large companies come
from maintaining their existing software systems.
• Agile methods are designed for small co-located teams
yet much software development now involves
worldwide distributed teams.

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 Contractual issues
• Most software contracts for custom systems are based
around a specification, which sets out what has to be
implemented by the system developer for the system
customer.
• However, this precludes interleaving specification and
development as is the norm in agile development.
• A contract that pays for developer time rather than
functionality is required.
– However, this is seen as a high risk my many legal
departments because what has to be delivered cannot be
guaranteed.
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Agile methods and software maintenance
• Most organizations spend more on maintaining existing
software than they do on new software development. So,
if agile methods are to be successful, they have to support
maintenance as well as original development.
• Two key issues:
– Are systems that are developed using an agile approach
maintainable, given the emphasis in the development process of
minimizing formal documentation?
– Can agile methods be used effectively for evolving a system in
response to customer change requests?
• Problems may arise if original development team cannot
be maintained.
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 Agile maintenance
• Key problems are:
– Lack of product documentation
– Keeping customers involved in the development process
– Maintaining the continuity of the development team
• Agile development relies on the development team
knowing and understanding what has to be done.
• For long-lifetime systems, this is a real problem as
the original developers will not always work on the
system.

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 Agile and plan-driven methods

• Most projects include elements of plan-driven and agile

processes. Deciding on the balance depends on:
– Is it important to have a very detailed specification and design before
moving to implementation? If so, you probably need to use a plan-
driven approach.
– Is an incremental delivery strategy, where you deliver the software to
customers and get rapid feedback from them, realistic? If so, consider
using agile methods.
– How large is the system that is being developed? Agile methods are
most effective when the system can be developed with a small co-
located team who can communicate informally. This may not be
possible for large systems that require larger development teams so a
plan-driven approach may have to be used.
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Agile principles and organizational practice
Principle Practice
Customer involvement This depends on having a customer who is willing and able to
spend time with the development team and who can represent all
system stakeholders. Often, customer representatives have other
demands on their time and cannot play a full part in the software
development.
Where there are external stakeholders, such as regulators, it is
difficult to represent their views to the agile team.

Embrace change Prioritizing changes can be extremely difficult, especially in

systems for which there are many stakeholders. Typically, each
stakeholder gives different priorities to different changes.

Incremental delivery Rapid iterations and short-term planning for development does
not always fit in with the longer-term planning cycles of business
planning and marketing. Marketing managers may need to know
what product features several months in advance to prepare an
effective marketing campaign.

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Agile principles and organizational practice

Principle Practice
Maintain simplicity Under pressure from delivery schedules, team members may not have
time to carry out desirable system simplifications.

People not process Individual team members may not have suitable personalities for the
intense involvement that is typical of agile methods, and therefore may
not interact well with other team members.

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 Agile and plan-based factors

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 System issues

• How large is the system being developed?

– Agile methods are most effective a relatively small co-located team who can
communicate informally.
• What type of system is being developed?
– Systems that require a lot of analysis before implementation need a fairly
detailed design to carry out this analysis.
• What is the expected system lifetime?
– Long-lifetime systems require documentation to communicate the intentions
of the system developers to the support team.
• Is the system subject to external regulation?
– If a system is regulated you will probably be required to produce detailed
documentation as part of the system safety case.

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 People and teams
• How good are the designers and programmers in the
development team?
– It is sometimes argued that agile methods require higher
skill levels than plan-based approaches in which
programmers simply translate a detailed design into code.
• How is the development team organized?
– Design documents may be required if the team is
dsitributed.
• What support technologies are available?
– IDE support for visualisation and program analysis is
essential if design documentation is not available.
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 Organizational issues
• Traditional engineering organizations have a
culture of plan-based development, as this is the
norm in engineering.
• Is it standard organizational practice to develop a
detailed system specification?
• Will customer representatives be available to
provide feedback of system increments?
• Can informal agile development fit into the
organizational culture of detailed documentation?

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 Agile methods for large systems
• Large systems are usually collections of separate, communicating
systems, where separate teams develop each system. Frequently,
these teams are working in different places, sometimes in different
time zones.
• Large systems are ‘brownfield systems’, that is they include and
interact with a number of existing systems. Many of the system
requirements are concerned with this interaction and so don’t really
lend themselves to flexibility and incremental development.
• Where several systems are integrated to create a system, a
significant fraction of the development is concerned with system
configuration rather than original code development.

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 Large system development
• Large systems and their development processes are
often constrained by external rules and regulations
limiting the way that they can be developed.
• Large systems have a long procurement and
development time. It is difficult to maintain coherent
teams who know about the system over that period as,
inevitably, people move on to other jobs and projects.
• Large systems usually have a diverse set of
stakeholders. It is practically impossible to involve all of
these different stakeholders in the development
process.
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 Factors in large systems

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 IBM’s agility at scale model

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 Scaling up to large systems
• A completely incremental approach to requirements engineering is
impossible.
• There cannot be a single product owner or customer
representative.
• For large systems development, it is not possible to focus only on
the code of the system.
• Cross-team communication mechanisms have to be designed and
used.
• Continuous integration is practically impossible. However, it is
essential to maintain frequent system builds and regular releases of
the system.

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 Multi-team Scrum
• Role replication
– Each team has a Product Owner for their work component and
ScrumMaster.
• Product architects
– Each team chooses a product architect and these architects
collaborate to design and evolve the overall system architecture.
• Release alignment
– The dates of product releases from each team are aligned so that
a demonstrable and complete system is produced.
• Scrum of Scrums
– There is a daily Scrum of Scrums where representatives from
each team meet to discuss progressand plan work to be done.

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Agile methods across organizations

• Project managers who do not have experience of agile methods may

be reluctant to accept the risk of a new approach.
• Large organizations often have quality procedures and standards that
all projects are expected to follow and, because of their bureaucratic
nature, these are likely to be incompatible with agile methods.
• Agile methods seem to work best when team members have a
relatively high skill level. However, within large organizations, there
are likely to be a wide range of skills and abilities.
• There may be cultural resistance to agile methods, especially in those
organizations that have a long history of using conventional systems
engineering processes.

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 Key points
• Agile methods are incremental development methods that focus on rapid
software development, frequent releases of the software, reducing
process overheads by minimizing documentation and producing high-
quality code.
• Agile development practices include
– User stories for system specification
– Frequent releases of the software,
– Continuous software improvement
– Test-first development
– Customer participation in the development team.

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 Key points
• Scrum is an agile method that provides a project
management framework.
– It is centred round a set of sprints, which are fixed time
periods when a system increment is developed.
• Many practical development methods are a
mixture of plan-based and agile development.
• Scaling agile methods for large systems is difficult.
– Large systems need up-front design and some
documentation and organizational practice may
conflict with the informality of agile approaches.

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