An Introduction

 “Development” and “communication” are two terms heavily

loaded with different conceptions and a richness of uses and
functions shaped by their various theoretical underpinnings.
Such richness often leads to ambiguities and a lack of clarity that
affects the field of development communication.
 The wide range of interpretations of key terminology and the
rapid evolution of some concepts have led to inconsistencies in
the way basic terms are understood and used.
 This section intends to address and clarify some of those
inconsistencies.
 The differences and similarities of the key terms selected are
discussed to ensure a common and clearer understanding.
 The terms presented are “information,” “communication,”
“participation,” “consultation,”“capacity
building,”“empowerment,” and “dialog.”
 Information—This term is often and erroneously
used as a synonym for communication or as its
predominant function.
 Rather, information should be considered as one
of the outputs of communication, but not the
only one, and in many instances not even the
main one.
 Information can always be considered part of
communication, but not vice versa.
 While communication can denote an open
interactive process among various actors,
information is usually related to causality intents:
using messages (the cause)
 to affect or change knowledge, attitudes, or
behaviors (the effect) of the receiving individuals.
 Information denotes the transmission of data apt to
influence or change specific knowledge and attitudes
or behaviors.
 A campaign aimed at preventing the spread of
HIV/AIDS is just such an example.
 Information remains linked to a model where
“talking is equated with persuading, and hearing with
understanding and accepting” (Beltrán Salmón 2006a
[1979]).
 The difference between information and
communication, therefore, is not simply a matter of
different theoretical models: one-way vertical flow
versus two-way horizontal flow.
 The difference is also of scope: a transmitter
trying to cause changes in others’ behaviors
versus an equal opportunity to exchange
knowledge and shape the process among
individuals who are transmitters and receivers at
the same time.
 In conclusion, information can be seen as part of
communication (but not vice versa), and
understanding the implications of this is
especially valuable when making decisions and
selecting the best possible courses of action in
the design of communication strategies.
 Within the emerging paradigm of development
communication, the model of reference has
acquired a stronger horizontal connotation,
including dialogic functions in addition to the
most common dissemination ones.
 Doubtless, owing to its long tradition of
theoretical studies and practical applications,
“communication” can be considered a
comprehensive term, encompassing all forms of
human interactions, from the interpersonal to the
mediated ones, and from the one-way linear flow
to the two-way dialogic processes
 Communication as a process denotes a circular
communicative flow (that is, dialog), in which the
specific outcomes and the results are not necessarily
predetermined.
 According to Pasquali (2006), “Authentic
communication, then, is only that which is based on a
symmetrical relational scheme, with parity of
conditions between sender and receiver, and the
possibility of one hearing or giving ear to the other,
as a mutual will to understand one another.”
 In other words, communication, especially when used
for research and analytical purposes, is more
effective when making full use of its dialogic
features, enhancing stakeholders’ voices, knowledge,
and participation.
 Another key term of the current development
paradigm is “participation”.
 Clearly, participation is not an absolute concept—
a choice between having full participation in
development projects and programs and having
no participation at all.
 There are a number of different shades or levels
of participation.
 Sometimes participatory approaches, mistakenly,
are considered to be equivalent to participatory
communication approaches.
 Even if both have a “participatory soul,” they also
have significant differences.
 Participatory communication methods and tools are used
in a project’s assessment phase not only to investigate the
overall situation but also to research communication-
related issues (for example, media systems, available
capacities, and so forth) and to provide inputs needed to
design the appropriate communication strategy.
 However, participation, conceived at its fullest extent, is
seldom adopted in practice, since its genuine application
in the current development context is unfeasible.
 Most current development policies and practices (for
example, project cycle, approval process, procurement
procedures) would have to be modified to allow for the
flexibility and for other key features of genuine
participatory approaches.
 As with most social concepts, such as freedom and
democracy, however, participation is not an absolute
condition.
 There are various degrees to which participation can
be applied. When using this term, it is important to
be clear about what kind of participation is
referenced.
 In general, when referring to participation, some
degree of sharing and an exchange capable of
influencing decisions should be made.
 Even if the ideal form of participation is not easily
achievable given the current structure of
development, participation remains a desirable and
crucial ingredient in most development initiatives.
 Given the discussion so far, it is evident that consultation is not
the same as participation and communication, but it is closely
related and can be considered a subset of both.
 Consultation can be regarded as an imperfect form of
participation.
 In genuine participation the stakeholders are equal partners,
while in consultation the decision-making control rests with the
few who are in charge of the consultation and decide if and how
to take into account the inputs collected during the consultation.
 Consultation is a form of communication, but it is different from
the dialogical process.
 Though the main scope of consultation is listening, the
information does not flow freely from the stakeholders, but
rather it is conceived as a feedback on predefined topics
intended for the experts.

 Consultation does not intend to change specific
behaviors at the outset.
 While there are different ways to conduct
consultations, the rationale is usually to reveal new
information (for example, opinions of different
groups) or to triangulate that which is already
available.
 There are two crucial ingredients for the successful
implementation of an effective consultation: the
review and preparation of the issues of interest
before the consultation and the neutral position on
those issues during the consultation (because the
primary mode of communication in this case is not
engaging in dialog but listening).
 This frequently used term, increasingly referred
to as capacity development, presents a number
of complexities.
 There is a broad consensus in the international
community that capacity refers to the ability of
individuals, institutions, and communities to
analyze and assess problems and take part in
relevant decision-making processes.
 One of the overall goals of development aid is to
strengthen capacities in developing countries,
because this is likely to enhance the chances of
success and long-term results of development
initiatives.
 Capacity building for communication is often
associated with training, adult education,
learning, and participation and empowerment.
 In this sense, capacity building means enhancing
specific knowledge and skills, both at an
individual and institutional level, especially when
the educational model of reference is the
experiential one.
 In this approach participants have the
opportunity to share their knowledge and
experiences, learning from each other, while the
instructor facilitates the process, ensuring that
the final outcome will enhance the intended
capacities.
 According to a World Bank working paper (Siri
2002: vi), to be effective, capacity- building
should “be demand-driven” and must “transfer
quality operational skills and knowledge.”
 It is achieved, not only through knowledge
transfer and formal training, but also through
experience, in a learning-by-doing mode, and
through dialog and collaboration in the various
phases of an initiative.
 Regardless of which area of intervention or which
sector needs strengthening, communication
remains a key ingredient in achieving the
intended capacity-building objectives.
 Many of the elements discussed in the definitions
of the previous terms can also be found in the
concept of “empowerment,” a term of growing
relevance in the current development scenario.
 Here it is important to note that, in contrast to
power as the degree of control exercised over
others, empowerment is more of an inner
condition or, as stated by Cornwall (2000: 33), “it
is not something that can be done to people, but
something people do by and for themselves.”
 Development communication, with its dialogical and
explorative connotation, can facilitate empowerment
through specific training or by creating the space for
working cooperatively on specific initiatives at an
individual, institutional, or community level.
 By taking part in decisions concerning their own lives,
even the most disenfranchised and marginalized
individuals tend to gain confidence and feel more
empowered.
 Whenever communication is applied to facilitate
dialog, knowledge exchange, and joint assessment of
the situation, stakeholders’ participation and
empowerment grow.
 Consequently, the chances for setting and achieving
sustainable projects’ objectives increase as well.
 This last term is also the most crucial one in the
current communication paradigm.
 Dialog is to be understood as the professional use—
and the word “professional” cannot be stressed
enough in this context—of dialogic methods and
approaches meant to engage stakeholders in the
definition and investigation of relevant issues for the
development initiative.
 The role of communication specialists consists in
facilitating the creation of a safe public space and an
enabling environment where stakeholders, even the
most marginalized ones, can air their points of view
and knowledge in search of the best course of action
for improving the situation.
 In this context, dialog is not simply about discussing
issues or communicating information, but about
generating knowledge.
 Bohm (1996) makes the point that, in contrast to a
discussion where one party tries to win by convincing the
others about the superiority of his/her point of view, in
dialog there is a cooperative mode of discussion where
nobody wins, or, better, where everybody wins if anyone
wins.
 In sum, dialog, in the context of development
communication, should be considered as the professional
application of interactive methods and techniques to
engage stakeholders in exploring the situation and
uncovering risks and opportunities that can benefit the
development initiative and make it more successful and
sustainable.