CS-13410

Introduction to Machine Learning

Lecture # 07

(Decision Trees – Ch # 3 by Tom Mitchell)

by
Mudasser Naseer
 Assignment -1

Assignment – 1 is uploaded on Moodle. Due date is 12-03-

2021 till 4:00 pm.

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 Measuring Node Impurity
p(i|t): fraction of records associated
with node t belonging to class i

• Used in ID3 and C4.5

• Used in CART, SLIQ, SPRINT.

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Example
P(C1) = 0/6 = 0 P(C2) = 6/6 = 1
Gini = 1 – (P(C1))2 – (P(C2))2 = 1 – 0 – 1 = 0
Entropy = – 0 log 0 – 1 log 1 = – 0 – 0 = 0
Error = 1 – max (0, 1) = 1 – 1 = 0

P(C1) = 1/6 P(C2) = 5/6

Gini = 1 – (1/6)2 – (5/6)2 = 0.278
Entropy = – (1/6) log2 (1/6) – (5/6) log2 (1/6) = 0.65
Error = 1 – max (1/6, 5/6) = 1 – 5/6 = 1/6

P(C1) = 2/6 P(C2) = 4/6

Gini = 1 – (2/6)2 – (4/6)2 = 0.444
Entropy = – (2/6) log2 (2/6) – (4/6) log2 (4/6) = 0.92
Error = 1 – max (2/6, 4/6) = 1 – 4/6 = 1/3
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 Impurity measures
All of the impurity measures take value zero
(minimum) for the case of a pure node where a
single value has probability 1

All of the impurity measures take maximum

value when the class distribution in a node is
uniform.

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 Splitting Based on GINI
When a node p is split into k partitions
(children), the quality of split is computed as,

where, ni = number of records at child i,

n = number of records at node p.

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 Binary Attributes: Computing GINI Index
• Splits into two partitions
• Effect of Weighing partitions:
– Larger and Purer Partitions are sought for.

B?

Yes No

Node N1 Node N2

Gini(Children)
Gini(N1) = 7/12 * 0.194 + 5/12 * 0.528
= 1 – (5/7)2 – (2/7)2 = 0.194 = 0.333
Gini(N2) This is the quality of split
= 1 – (1/5)2 – (4/5)2 = 0.528 for Variable B 7
 Categorical Attributes

 For binary values split in two

 For multivalued attributes, for each distinct value,
gather counts for each class in the dataset
 Use the count matrix to make decisions

Multi-way split Two-way split

(find best partition of values)

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 Continuous Attributes
 Use Binary Decisions based on one value

 Choices for the splitting value

 Number of possible splitting values
= Number of distinct values

 Each splitting value has a count matrix

associated with it
 Class counts in each of the partitions, A
≤ v and A > v

 Exhaustive method to choose best v

 For each v, scan the database to gather
count matrix and compute the impurity
index
 Computationally Inefficient! Repetition of
work.
 Continuous Attributes
 For efficient computation: for each attribute,
 Sort the attribute on values
 Linearly scan these values, each time updating the count matrix
and computing impurity
 Choose the split position that has the least impurity

Sorted Values
Split Positions

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 Splitting based on impurity
 Impurity measures favor attributes with
large number of categories

 A test condition with large number of

outcomes may not be desirable
 # of records in each partition is too small
to make predictions

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 Gain Ratio
 The information gain measure tends to prefer attributes with
large numbers of possible categories.
 Gain ratio: a modification of the information gain that reduces
its bias on high‐branch attributes.
 Gian ratio should be
 Large when data is evenly spread
 Small when all data belong to one branch
 Gain ratio takes number and size of branches into account
when choosing an attribute
 It corrects the information gain by taking the intrinsic
information of a split into account
Or if we use S in place of D
 Gain Ratio
 Adjusts Information Gain by the entropy of the partitioning
(SplitINFO). Higher entropy partitioning (large number of
small partitions) is penalized!
 Used in C4.5
 Designed to overcome the disadvantage of impurity
Example (Play tennis) :
 More on the gain ratio
 “Outlook” still comes out top
 However: “ID code” has greater gain ratio
 Standard fix: In particular applications we can
use an ad hoc test to prevent splitting on that
type of attribute
 Problem with gain ratio: it may overcompensate
 May choose an attribute just because its intrinsic
information is very low
 Standard fix:
• First, only consider attributes with greater than average
information gain
• Then, compare them on gain ratio
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Comparing Attribute Selection Measures
 The three measures, in general, return good
results but
 Information Gain
 Biased towards multivalued attributes
 Gain Ratio
 Tends to prefer unbalanced splits in which one
partition is much small than the other
 Gini Index
 Biased towards multivalued attributes
 Has difficulties when the number of classes is
large
 Tends to favor tests that result in equal-sized
partitions and purity in both partitions
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 Stopping Criteria for Tree Induction

 Stop expanding a node when all the

records belong to the same class

 Stop expanding a node when all the

records have similar attribute values

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 Decision Tree Based Classification
 Advantages:
 Inexpensive to construct
 Extremely fast at classifying unknown records
 Easy to interpret for small-sized trees
 Accuracy is comparable to other classification
techniques for many simple data sets

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 Example: C4.5
 Simple depth-first construction.
 Uses Information Gain
 Sorts Continuous Attributes at each
node.
 Needs entire data to fit in memory.
 Unsuitable for Large Datasets.
 Needs out-of-core sorting.

 You can download the software from:

http://www.cse.unsw.edu.au/~quinlan/c4.5r8.tar.gz
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 Practical Issues of Classification
 Underfitting and Overfitting

 Evaluation

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 Underfitting and Overfitting
Underfitting Overfitting

Underfitting: when model is too simple, both training and test errors are large
Overfitting: when model is too complex it models the details of the training20set
and fails on the test set
Overfitting due to Noise

Decision boundary is distorted by noise point 21

 Notes on Overfitting
 Overfitting results in decision trees that
are more complex than necessary
 Training error no longer provides a
good estimate of how well the tree will
perform on previously unseen records
 The model does not generalize well
 Need new ways for estimating errors

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 How to Address Overfitting:
Tree Pruning
 Pre-Pruning (Early Stopping Rule)
 Stop the algorithm before it becomes a fully-grown tree
 Typical stopping conditions for a node:
• Stop if all instances belong to the same class
• Stop if all the attribute values are the same
 More restrictive conditions:
• Stop if number of instances is less than some user-specified threshold
• Stop if class distribution of instances are independent of the available features
(e.g., using  2 test)
• Stop if expanding the current node does not improve impurity measures (e.g.,
Gini or information gain) or it falls below a threshold value.
 Upon halting, the node becomes a leaf
 The leaf may hold the most frequent class among the subset
tuples.
 Problem
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• Difficult to choose an appropriate threshold
 How to Address Overfitting…

 Post-pruning
 Grow decision tree to its entirety
 Trim the nodes of the decision tree in a
bottom-up fashion
 If generalization error improves after
trimming, replace sub-tree by a leaf node.
 Class label of leaf node is determined from
majority class of instances in the sub-tree

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Prune the Tree OR Prune the Rule
 In order to Reduce the complexity of
decision procedure we have two options
(i) either we can prune the tree first
and then develop the rules or (ii) we
can develop the rules and then prune
the rules.
 Which is better?
(ii) is better, why?

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