P L A N N I N G

A N A LY T I C A L
M E T H O D S

QUALITATIVE
METHODS 2
KELOMPOK 6 KELOMPOK 14
25422011 VIVIAN ALVIANTI 25422014 RESTRI AYU SAFARINA
25422030 INGGAR RAYI ARBANI 25422031 ROBI SUWARNA
25422045 MOHAMMAD FIRZAT SHINDI 35421005 ARSAN NURROKHMAN
 QUALITATIVE DATA PROCESS

OUTLINE 01 1.
2.
VERBATIM TRANSCRIPT
CODING PROCESS
03 DATA INTERPRETATION

DISPLAYING AND DATA QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS

INTERPRETATION VALIDATION

02 1.
2.
DISPLAYING FORMAT
DATA DISPLAY METHOD
04 1.
2.
OBJECTIVITY
RELIABILITY
3. DATA CONFIGURATION 3. INTERNAL VALIDITY
TECHNIQUES 4. EXTERNAL VALIDITY
5. UTILIZATION/APPLICATION
QUALITATIVE DATA
PROCESS
 Verbatim Transcript
Verbatim Transcript is the process of documenting a
conversation between two or more people

This can be done real-time or from an audio/video recording

Source: http://www.indianscribes.com
 4 Ways to Verbatim Transcript

2. Transcribing Manually
1. Using Audio-to-Text
Converters

3. Outsourcing to a 4. Hiring a Freelance

Transcription Agency Transcription

Source: http://www.indianscribes.com
 Example of Verbatim
Transcript Format

Source: http://www.indianscribes.com
DEFINITION OF

CODES
Codes are labels that assign symbolic meaning to the
descriptive or inferential information compiled during a
study. (Saldafia, 2013)

CODING
Coding is thus a data condensation task that
enables you to retrieve the most meaningful material, to
assemble chunks of data that go together, and to further
condense the bulk into readily analyzable units. (Miles &
Huberman, 2014)
 Creating Codes

Deductive Coding Inductive Coding

• Developing a provisional “start list” of codes • Other codes emerge progressively during
prior to fieldwork. data collection
• That list comes from the conceptual • Open to what the site has to say rather than
framework, list of research questions, determined to force-fit the data into
hypotheses, problem areas, and/or key preexisting codes. (Miles, et al.)
variables that the researcher brings to the
study. (Miles and Huberman)
 CODING

First Cycle Coding Second Cycle Coding

First Cycle Coding methods include up 25 Second Cycle Coding method is a way of
different approaches, each one with a grouping those summaries into a smaller
particular function or purpose. number of categories, themes, or constructs.
 FIRST CYCLE CODING
There are three elemental methods that serve as foundation approaches to coding:

DESCRIPTIVE CODING
A descriptive code assigns labels to data to summarize in a word or short the basic topic
of a passage of qualitative data

IN VIVO CODING
In Vivo coding uses words or short phrases from the participant’s own language in the
data record as codes.

PROCESS CODING
This coding method uses gerunds (“-ing” words) exclusively to connote observable and
conceptual action in the data.
 FIRST CYCLE CODING
There are three affective methods that tap into the more subjective experiences:

EMOTION CODING
Emotion coding is particularly appropriate for studies that explore intrapersonal and interpersonal
participant experiences and actions

VALUES CODING
• A value (V:) is the importance we attribute to ourselves, another person, thing, or idea.
• An attitude (A:) is the way we think and feel about oneself, another person, thing, or idea.
• A belief (B:) is part of a system that includes values and attitudes, plus personal knowledge,
experiences, opinions, prejudices, morals, and other interpretive perceptions of the social world.

EVALUATION CODING
Evaluation coding is appropriate for policy, critical, action, organizational, and evaluation studies,
particularly across multiple cases and extended periods of time.
FIRST CYCLE CODING
01
One literary and language method, Dramaturgical coding, explores human action and interaction
through strategic analysis of people’s motives

DRAMATURGICAL CODING
02 04
Dramaturgical coding is appropriate for exploring intrapersonal and interpersonal
participant experiences and actions in case studies, power relationships, and the
processes of human motives and agency.
 FIRST CYCLE CODING
There are three exploratory methods coding that make preliminary or global codding assignments

HOLISTIC CODING
Holistic coding is often a preparatory approach to a unit of data before a more detailed coding or
categorization process through First or Second Cycle methods

PROVISIONAL CODING
Provisional coding is appropriate for qualitative studies that build on or corroborate previous
research and investigations.

HYPOTHESIS CODING
Hypothesis coding is appropriate for hypothesis testing, content analysis, and analytic induction
of the qualitative data set, particularly the search for rules, causes, and explanations in the data.
 FIRST CYCLE CODING
Two procedural methods utilize specific rather than open-ended ways of coding data

PROTOCOL CODING
This is the coding of qualitative data according to a prestablished, recommended, standardized,
or prescribed system.

CAUSATION CODING
Causation coding is appropriate for discerning motives, belief systems, worldviews, processes,
recent histories, interrelationships, and the complexity of influences and affects on human
actions and phenomena.
 FIRST CYCLE CODING
Four grammatical methods play a role in the mechanics of coding

ATTRIBUTE CODING
This method is the notation of basic descriptive
information such as the fieldwork setting, participant
characteristics or demographics, data format, etc.

MAGNITUDE CODING
Magnitudes consist of supplemental alphanumeric or
symbolic codes or sub-codes applied to existing coded data
or a category to indicate their intensity, frequency,
direction, presence, or evaluative content
 FIRST CYCLE CODING
Four grammatical methods play a role in the mechanics of coding

SUBCODING
A subcode is a second-order tag assigned after a
primary code to detail or enrich the entry.

SIMULTANEOUS CODING
This is the application of two or more different codes
to a single qualitative datum, or the overlapped
occurrence of two or more codes applied to
sequential units of qualitative data.
 SECOND CYCLE CODING

Applications
Pattern coding has four important function:
1. It condenses large amounts of data into a smaller number of analytic units.
2. It gets the researcher into analysis during data collection, so that later fieldwork can be more
focused.
3. It helps the researcher elaborate a cognitive map—an evolving, more integrated schema for
understanding local incidents and interactions.
4. For multicase studies, it lays the groundwork for cross-case analysis by surfacing common
themes and directional processes.
SECOND CYCLE CODING
GENERATING PATTERN CODES
1. Bits of data and the review of the coded segments being pulled are leads
2. Seeing the Resentment Data
3. Cross-case comparisons
4. Work with loosely held chunks of meaning, to be ready to unfreeze and reconfigure them as the
data shape up otherwise

WHAT PATTERN CODES LOOK LIKE

1. Categories or themes
2. Causes/explanations
3. Relationships among people
4. Theoretical construct

USING PATTERN CODES IN ANALYSIS

useful at some point to “map” the Pattern codes, that is, to lay out the component codes that got
the pattern, along with segments from the field notes.
EXAMPLE:

1. Anxiety (Emotion Code)

2. Nervousness (Emotion Code)
3. “Hurt Someone Bad” (In Vivo Code/Emotion Code)
4. Restlessness (Emotion Code)
5. Deep Breathing (Process Code)
6. Throat Burning (Process Code)
7. “Felt Like Crying” (In Vivo Code/Emotion Code/Process SECOND CYCLE
Code) CODING
8. Angry (emotion Code)
9. “Eating a lot more” (In Vivo Code/Process Code)
10. Wandering Around (Process Code)
11. Habitual Movements (Descriptive Code)
12. Memories of Smoking (Descriptive Code)
13. Smelling New Things (Process Code)
DISPLAYING AND DATA
INTERPRETATION
 QUALITATIVE DATA DISPLAY
Unreduced text in the form of interview transcripts, field notes, documents, and so on is cumbersome because it is dispersed over many pages and is not easy to
see as a whole.

By “display” we mean a visual format that presents information systematically so the user can draw conclusions and take needed action (Milles, 2014). Display
Format Options on Qualitative Methods

Visual Display Purpose

Boxed display To highlight a specific narrative considered important and frame it in a box

Decision tree modeling To describe options, decisions, and actions

Flow chart To illustrate directional flow and show pathways of different groups

Ladder To represent the dimensions of the progression of certain phenomenon through time or to show levels or stages

Matrix To cross two or more dimensions, variables, or concepts of relevance to the topic of interest

Metaphorical visual display To depict in a metaphorical way the topics or themes found

Modified Venn diagram To indicate shared or overlapping aspects of a concept, a category, or a process

Network To depict relationships between themes and subthemes or categories and subcategories
Taxonomy To classify or organize information
Verdinelli, S., & Scagnoli, N. I. (2013). Data display in qualitative research. International Journal of Qualitative Methods, 12(1), 359-381.
 QUALITATIVE DATA DISPLAY
BOXED DISPLAY

• This type of display to highlight a specific

narrative considered important
• It emphasizes the authors’ interests or points
of relevance

Example of a boxed display. Adapted from “Negotiating the Politics of Identity in an nterdisciplinary Research
Team,” by L. Lingard, C. F. Schryer, M. M. Spafford, and S. L. Campbell, 2007, Qualitative Research, 7(4), p. 512.
 QUALITATIVE DATA DISPLAY
DECISION TREE MODELING

The beginning or top decision tree

modeling usually shows the choice
alternatives; the middle shows the
decision criteria; and the bottom shows
the decision outcome (Miles &
Huberman, 1994).

Example of a decision tree modeling. Adapted from “Complementary and Alternative Medicine for Children’s
Asthma: Satisfaction, Care Provider Responsiveness, and Networks of Care,” by B. Freidin, 2008, Qualitative Health
Research, 18(1), p. 47.
 QUALITATIVE DATA DISPLAY
FLOW CHART

Flow charts usually indicate the alternative paths

that different participants follow in a specific
process. They depict a stream and they are useful in
portraying different routes of action.

Example of a flow chart. Adapted from “Storying Childhood Sexual Abuse,” C. B. Draucker and
D. S. Martsolf, 2008, Qualitative Health Research, 18(8), p. 1039.
 QUALITATIVE DATA DISPLAY
LADDER

• This diagram represents the dimensions of the

progression of certain phenomenon through
time.
• The ladder shows the different phases or steps
that participants experience under certain
circumstances

Example of a ladder. Adapted from “Long-Term Sickness Absence Due to Burnout: Absentees’
Experiences,” by U. Eriksson, B. Starrin, and S. Janson, 2008, Qualitative Health Research, 18(5), p. 623.
 QUALITATIVE DATA DISPLAY
MATRIX

Matrices are tables based on a “cross-classification

of two or more dimensions, variables, or concepts of
relevance to the topic or topics of interest” (Lofland
et al., 2006, p. 214).

. Example of a matrix. Adapted from “Discourse Tracing as Qualitative Practice,” by M. LeGreco

and S. J. Tracy, 2009, Qualitative Inquiry, 15(9), p. 1523.
 QUALITATIVE DATA DISPLAY
METAPHORICAL VISUAL DISPLAY

Metaphorical visual displays represent

findings and results by means of a common
or consensual sign or symbol embedded in
the culture

Example of a metaphorical visual display. Adapted from “Reproductive Decisions for Women
with HIV: Motherhood’s Role in Envisioning a Future,” by D. Barnes and S. Murphy, 2009, Qualitative Health
Research, 19(4), p. 485.
 QUALITATIVE DATA DISPLAY
MODIFIED VENN DIAGRAM

Qualitative research articles usually

employ a modified version of a Venn
diagram to display shared aspects of a
concept, a category, or a process. This
also been used to depict a model or
conceptual framework.

. Example of a modified Venn diagram. Adapted from “Mapping the Processes and Qualities of
Spiritual Nursing Care,” by T. Carr, 2008, Qualitative Health Research, 18(5), p. 696.
 QUALITATIVE DATA DISPLAY
NETWORKS

In qualitative studies, networks are commonly

used to show frameworks, models, or theories
that indicate findings about the phenomenon
under study.

. Example of a networks. Freeman, L. (2004). The development of social network analysis. A Study in the Sociology
of Science, 1(687), 159-167.
 QUALITATIVE DATA DISPLAY
TAXONOMY

A taxonomy is a classification organized in

a hierarchical structure, ordered by
supertype-subtype relationships. The
subtype retains all the properties of the
supertype, with an additional property or
constraint.

Example of a taxonomy. Adapted from “Developing a Theory from Complexity: Reflections on a Collaborative
Mixed Method Participatory Action Research Study,” by A. Westhues, J. Ochocka, N. Jacobson, L. Simich, S.
Maiter, R. Janzen, and A. Fleras, 2008, Qualitative Health Research, 18(5), p. 703.
METHODS OF
DISPLAYING
 METHODS OF DISPLAYING

In displaying qualitative data some methods are usually used:

• Methods of Exploring
• Methods of Describing
• Methods of Ordering
• Methods of Explaining
• Methods of Predicting
 METHODS OF EXPLORING
• Data Accounting Log
• Contact Summary Form
EXPLORING • Case Analysis Meeting
FIELDWORK IN • Interim Case Summary
• Partially Order Meta Matrix
PROGRESS
• Explanatory Effect Matrix

• Checklist Matrix
•
METHODS OF EXPLORING VARIABELS •
Content-Analytic Summary Table
Contrast Table
EXPLORING • Two Variable Case Ordered
Matrix

EXPLORING REPORTS IN • Pre Structured Case

PROGRESS • Sequential Analysis
 METHODS OF EXPLORING
EXPLORING FIELDWORK IN PROGRESS
DATA ACCOUNTING LOG

This method is used when documenting

data collected from participants and
specific sites in one form

Source: Miles, Matthew B. (2014). Qualitative data analysis : a methods sourcebook. Thousand Oaks, Califorinia :SAGE Publications, Inc.,
 METHODS OF EXPLORING
EXPLORING FIELDWORK IN PROGRESS
CONTACT SUMMARY FORM

This display is a one-page document with

several focus or summary questions
about a specific contact field.

Source: Miles, Matthew B. (2014). Qualitative data analysis : a methods sourcebook. Thousand Oaks, Califorinia :SAGE Publications, Inc.,
 METHODS OF EXPLORING
EXPLORING FIELDWORK IN PROGRESS
CASE ANALYSIS MEETING

The case analysis meeting is used to

record important points in the focus
group discussion and to summarize the
current status of the case

Source: Miles, Matthew B. (2014). Qualitative data analysis : a methods sourcebook. Thousand Oaks, Califorinia :SAGE Publications, Inc.,
 METHODS OF EXPLORING
EXPLORING FIELDWORK IN PROGRESS
INTERIM CASE SUMMARY

Interim case summaries are provisional

products of varying length (5–35 pages,
depending on the scope of the study)
which are the first attempt to obtain an
explanation of the case study research.

Source: Miles, Matthew B. (2014). Qualitative data analysis : a methods sourcebook. Thousand Oaks, Califorinia :SAGE Publications, Inc.,
 METHODS OF DESCRIBING

DESCRIBING • Role Ordered Matrix

PARTICIPANTS • Context Chart

METHODS OF DESCRIBING VARIABILITY

• Construct Table
• Conceptually Clustered Matrix
DESCRIBING • Folx Taxonomy

• Vignettes
DESCRIBING ACTION • Poetic Display
• Cognitive Maps
 METHODS OF DESCRIBING
DESCRIBING VARIABLES

Construct Table
A construct table includes data that
highlight the variable properties
and/or dimensions of one key
construct.

Conceptually Clustered Matrix

A context chart is a network, mapping in
graphic form the interrelationships among
the roles and groups that make up the
contexts of individual actions.

Source: Miles, Matthew B. (2014). Qualitative data analysis : a methods sourcebook. Thousand Oaks, Califorinia :SAGE Publications, Inc.,
 METHODS OF DESCRIBING
DESCRIBING PARTICIPANTS

Role Ordered Matrix

A role-ordered matrix sorts data in its rows
and columns that have been gathered about
data reflecting their views.

Context Chart
A context chart is a network, mapping in
graphic form the interrelationships among
the roles and groups that make up the
contexts of individual actions.

Source: Miles, Matthew B. (2014). Qualitative data analysis : a

methods sourcebook. Thousand Oaks, Califorinia :SAGE
Publications, Inc.,
 METHODS OF DESCRIBING
DESCRIBING ACTION

Cognitive Maps
A cognitive map displays a person’s
representation of concepts or processes about
a particular domain, showing the
relationships, flows, and dynamics among
them.

Source: Miles, Matthew B. (2014). Qualitative data analysis : a methods sourcebook. Thousand Oaks, Califorinia :SAGE Publications, Inc.,
 METHODS OF ORDERING

• Event Listing Matrix

ORDERING BY TIME • Growth Radient
• Time Ordered Matrix

METHODS OF ORDERING PROCESSES

• Decision Modeling
• Even State Network
ORDERING • Composite Sequence Analysis

ORDERING BY CASES • Case Order Descriptice Meta Matrix

 METHODS OF ORDERING
ORDERING BY TIME

Event-Listing Matrix
An event listing is a matrix that arranges a
series of concrete events by chronological time
periods, sorting them into several categories

Source: Miles, Matthew B. (2014). Qualitative data analysis : a methods sourcebook. Thousand Oaks, Califorinia :SAGE Publications, Inc.,
 METHODS OF ORDERING
ORDERING PROCESSES

Decision Modeling
A decision model is a visual graphic that
outlines the thoughts, plans, and
choices/decisions made during a flow of
actions embedded in a range of conditions

Source: Miles, Matthew B. (2014). Qualitative data analysis : a methods sourcebook. Thousand Oaks, Califorinia :SAGE Publications, Inc.,
 METHODS OF ORDERING
ORDERING BY CASES

Case Order Descriptice Meta Matrix

A case-ordered descriptive meta-matrix
hierarchically organized cases according to
selected criteria to compare common
variables or outcomes of interest.

Source: Miles, Matthew B. (2014). Qualitative data analysis : a methods sourcebook. Thousand Oaks, Califorinia :SAGE Publications, Inc.,
 METHODS OF EXPLAINING
EXPLAINING • Variable by Variable Matrix
INTERRELATIONSHIP

METHODS OF
• Effect Matrix
EXPLAINING EXPLAINING CHANGE
• Case Dynamic Matrix

• Causal Chains
EXPLAINING CAUSATION • Causal Networks: Within Case Analysis
• Causal Networks: Cross Case Analysis
 METHODS OF EXPLAINING
EXPLAINING INTERRELATIONSHIP

Variable by Variable Matrix

A variable-by-variable matrix has two main
variables in its rows and columns. Specific
properties or components of each variable are
individually listed and ordered by intensity.

Source: Miles, Matthew B. (2014). Qualitative data analysis : a methods sourcebook. Thousand Oaks, Califorinia :SAGE Publications, Inc.,
 METHODS OF EXPLAINING
EXPLAINING CHANGE

Effect Matrix
An effects matrix displays data on one or
more outcomes as the study requires. Effects
are always outcomes of something—for
example, a global program, an independent
variable, an intervening
variable.

Source: Miles, Matthew B. (2014). Qualitative data analysis : a methods sourcebook. Thousand Oaks, Califorinia :SAGE Publications, Inc.,
 METHODS OF EXPLAINING
EXPLAINING CAUSATION

Causal Chains
A causal chain is a researcher-constructed
linear display of events, actions, and/or states
that suggests a plausible sequence of causes
and effects
Source: Miles, Matthew B. (2014). Qualitative data analysis : a methods sourcebook. Thousand Oaks, Califorinia :SAGE Publications, Inc.,
 METHODS OF PREDICTING

• Making and Testing Predictions

METHODS OF METHODS OF PREDICTING • Predictor Outcome Consequences Matrix
PREDICTING • Causal Prediction Models
 METHODS OF PREDICTING
METHODS OF PREDICTING

Making and Testing Predictions

Predictions are compiled during analysis
based on previous analysis and responses
from informants for the accuracy of the
predictions made

Predictor Outcome Consequences Matrix

A predictor-outcome-consequences matrix
arrays cases and data on three components:
(1) main antecedent variables (2) main
outcome or criterion variables, then (3) the
predicted consequences
 METHODS OF PREDICTING
METHODS OF PREDICTING

Causal Prediction Models

A causal-prediction model is a network of
variables with causal connections among
them, drawn from multiple-case analysis

Source: Miles, Matthew B. (2014). Qualitative data analysis : a methods sourcebook. Thousand Oaks, Califorinia :SAGE Publications, Inc.,
 DATA
CONFIGURATION
TECHNIQUE
1. NOTTING  Pattern finding can be very productive when the number of cases and/or the data overload is severe.
PATTERNS, (McCammon et.al, 2012)
THEMES  Patterns do not just happen. It construct from our observations of reoccurring phenomena.
 IMPORTANT: See added evidence of the same pattern and remain open to disconfirming evidence when
it appears.
2. SEEING  Plausability was an initial impression that need further checking through other tactics.
PLAUSIBILITY  A sort of pointer to drawing the analyst’s attention to a conclusion that looked reasonable and sensible
on the face of it.
 Most of the conclusion drawn during analysis are substantive, based on the content.
3. CLUSTERING  Clustering is a tactic that can be applied at many levels to qualitative data.
 Trying to understand a phenomenon better by grouping and the conceptualizing objects that have
similar patterns or characteristic.
 Clustering is our best attempt to categorize what seems to belong together.
 Clustering techniques do not have to be completely self-invented. There is a long tradition of content-
analytic, coding, and categorizing techniques dealing directly with issues of unitizing and clustering
qualitative data that can be very helpful.
4. MAKING  Metaphors are data-condensing devices, taking several particulars and making a single generality of
METAPHORS them.
 Metaphors are also pattern-making devices to place the pattern noted in the larger context.
 Metaphors are also excellent decentering devices because metaphors will not let you simply describe or
denote a phenomenon.
 Metaphors or analogies are ways of connecting findings to theory. Metaphoric thinking effectively
unites reason and imagination.
5. COUNTING  To see rapidly what you have in a large batch of data.
To see general drift of the data more easily and rapidly by looking at distributions.
 To verify a hunch or hypothesis
Counting in the form of statistical operation disconfirmed the hypothesis and made for a more trustworthy
analysis.
 To keep yourself analytically honest, protecting against bias.
Doing qualitative analysis with the occasional aid of numbers is a good way of testing for possible bias
and seeing how robust our insight are.
6. MAKING  Comparison is a time-honored, classic way to test a conclusion; draw a contrast or make a comparison
CONTRAST/ between two sets of things –persons, roles, activities, variables etc- that are known to differ in some other
COMPARISON important respect.
 TIPS: Make sure that the comparisons made are the right ones and that they make sense. Take a moment
before you display a comparison, and think, “How big must a difference be before it makes a difference?”
7. PARTITIONING  Divide variables in the early stages (conceptualizing, coding) to avoid monolithism and data blurring.
VARIABLES  Partition a variable when it is not relating as well to another variable as your conceptual framework (or
other available data).
 When divide a variable, it should be in the service of finding coherent, integrated descriptions and
explanations.
8. SUBSUMING  Subsuming particulars into more general classes is a conceptual and theoretical activity in which you
PARTICULARS shuttle back and forth between first-level data and more general categories that evolve and develop
INTO THE through successive iterations until the category is “saturated” (new data do not add to the meaning of the
GENERALS general category.
9. FACTORING  The qualitative researcher’s version of factoring is making patterns of patterns, or categories of
categories.
 Tightening up the data even further by making a smaller number of patterns from a larger number of
patterns, or smaller number of categories from a larger number of categories.
 The factors have to contribute to our understanding of the case or of its underlying dynamics.
10. NOTING THE  To discover what sort of relationship-if any-exists between two (or more) variables. 
RELATIONS  Data bearing on two or more variables can be arrayed for systematic inspection, and conclusion drawn.
BETWEEN Network displays help us look at more complex configurations and show the temporal dimension
VARIABLES more clearly.
11. FINDING  The effort to clarify a plausible but puzzling relationship let to a much clearer formulation.
INTERVENING  Finding intervening variables is easiest with multiple examples of the two-variable relationship to look
VARIABLES at, contrast, and compare.
12. BUILDING A  Building a chain of evidence requires painstaking verification at each step.
LOGICAL CHAIN  The method uses two interlocking cycles.
OF EVIDENCE  One is called “enumerative induction” in which you collect a number and variety of instances all going
in the same direction.
 The second is called “eliminative induction” in which you test your hypothesis against alternatives and
look carefully for qualifications that bound the generality of the conclusion.
13. MAKING  Establishing the discrete findings
CONCEPTUAL/  Relating the findings to each other
THEORETICAL  Naming the pattern
COHERENCE  Identifying a corresponding construct
 03
DATA
INTERPRETATION
Illustrating assertions and interpretations through results
1. The terminal phase of qualitative inquiry
2. Processes that define the practices of interpretation and representation are always ongoing, emergent,
unpredictable, and unfinished. (Denzin & Lincoln, 2005)
3. This phase entails the assessment, analysis, and interpretation of the empirical evidence that has been
collected.
4. The different points of view of the participants are presented in sufficient detail and depth (McMillan &
Schumacher, 2014)
5. The data are used to illustrate and validate the interpretation of the data. (Baxter & Eyles, 1997).
6. Qualitative researchers should be able to refer their original data and be able “to construct evidence of
the code from the data”. (Chenail, 2012).
7. The researchers’s perception, biases and personal beliefs should also be accounted for. (Creswell, 2007).
8. The conclusion should be consistent with the findings.
DATA
INTERPRETATION elaborated into:

01 PURPOSE

02 PROCEDUR

03 KEY RELATIONSHIP

04 DATA INTEROGATION

THE STEP IN
05 INTERPRETING DATA
 DATA INTERPRETATION

TIPS 1 TIPS 2 TIPS 3

Write down the comment from informant Take notes in everything that related to research Measure data accuracy and data objectivity
about the research based on findings, as much field. The things like theory, methods, and from the informant.
as possible. substantive issue.

TIPS 4 TIPS 5 TIPS 6

Do the literature exploration when start Play with metaphor, analogy, and Visualization is important. Try to use graphs
the study. concept. and chart, such as table, matrix, and
diagram.
 04
QUALITATIVE
ANALYSIS
VALIDATION
STANDARDS FOR THE QUALITY OF CONCLUSIONS

HOW WILL YOU, OR ANYONE ELSE,

KNOW WHETHER THE FINALLY
EMERGING FINDINGS ARE GOOD?
That term has many possible definitions: possibly or probably true, reliable, valid, dependable, reasonable,
confirmable, credible, trustworthy, useful, compelling, significant, empowering (add others of your choice). It’s
not enough to say that well carried out tactics will make for good conclusions

Mattew B. Miles, A. Michael Huberman, Johnny Saldana (EDITION 3)

IN THIS SECTION, WE
EXPLORE SOME PRACTICAL
01 the objectivity/confirmability of qualitative work

STANDARDS THAT COULD

HELP US JUDGE THE QUALITY 02 reliability/dependability/auditability
OF CONCLUSIONS.
The battles in this domain have been extensive, and they continue. Many
interpretivist researchers suggest that it is not really possible to establish
standards or to specify criteria for good qualitative work
To assess the rigour of qualitative research, Lincoln and Guba (1985)
03 internal validity/credibility/authenticity
resort to the concepts of credibility, transferability,
dependability, and confirmability to express the quantitative concepts
of internal validity, external validity (generalisability), reliability,
and objectivity respectively.  04 external validity/transferability/fittingness

05 utilization/application/action orientation

Mattew B. Miles, A. Michael Huberman, Johnny Saldana (EDITION 3)

These are not rules to be
stiffly applied but
guidelines to consider
when you reflect on the
question “How good is this
research report?”
01 Objectivity/confirmability according to Lincoln and Guba (1985)

confirmability when its findings are based on the analysis of the collected data and examined
via an auditing process, i.e. the auditor confirms that the study findings are grounded in the
data and inferences based on the data are logical and have clarity, high utility or explanatory
power.
Confirmability. Researchers need to provide evidence that corroborates the findings. Such
evidence should come directly from subjects and research context, rather than
the researcher’s biases, motivations, or perspectives.​
01 THE OBJECTIVITY/CONFIRMABILITY OF QUALITATIVE WORK

Some useful points to consider about this issue for a qualitative study are as
follows:
1. The study’s general methods and procedures are described explicitly and
in detail.
2. follow the actual sequence of how data were collected, processed,
condensed/transformed, and displayed for specific conclusion drawing
3. The conclusions are explicitly of condensed/displayed data
4. There is a record of the study’s methods and procedures to be audited by
an outsider (Lincoln & Guba, 1985).
5. The researcher has been explicit and as self-aware as possible about
personal assumptions, values, and affective states
6. Competing hypotheses or rival conclusions have been considered.
7. The study’s data are retained and available for reanalysis by others

Mattew B. Miles, A. Michael Huberman, Johnny Saldana (EDITION 3)

02 eliability/dependability/auditab according to Lincoln and Guba (1985)

dependability (reliability) if the process of selecting, justifying and applying research strategies,

procedures and methods is clearly explained and its effectiveness evaluated by the researcher and
confirmed by an auditor, which is called ‘audit trail’. The study enjoys 

Dependability. The extent to which the research would produce similar or consistent findings if
carried out as described, including taking into account any factors that may have affected the research
results.
02 reliability/dependability/auditability
we arrive at the crunch question: truth value

Do the findings of the study make sense?

Are they credible to the people we study and to our readers?
Do we have an authentic portrait of what we were looking at?

Maxwell’s (1992) thoughtful review distinguishes among the types of

understanding that may emerge from a qualitative study

descriptive interpretive
what happened in specific what it meant to the people
situations involved

theoretical evaluative
the concepts, and their judgments of the worth or
relationships, used to explain value of actions and
actions and meanings meanings
02 reliability/dependability/auditability

Some useful points to consider about this issue for a qualitative study are as follows:
1. Descriptions are context-rich, meaningful, and “thick” (Geertz, 1973).
2. The account rings true, makes sense, seems convincing
3. Triangulation among complementary methods and data sources produced generally
4. The data presented are well linked to the categories of prior
5. Findings are clear, coherent, and systematically related
6. Confirmation procedures for assertions, hypotheses, conclusions, and so on, are described
7. Any areas of uncertainty have been identified
8. Negative evidence was sought (if found and accounted for in the analysis and write-up)
9. Rival explanations have been actively considered
10. When possible, findings have been replicated in other parts of the database
11. The conclusions were considered to be accurate by the original participants
12. If predictions were made in the study, their accuracy is reported.

Mattew B. Miles, A. Michael Huberman, Johnny Saldana (EDITION 3)

Miles & Huberman, 1994, hlm. 278–279
03 Credibility / internal validity according to Lincoln and Guba (1985)

Credibility means that the participants involved in the study find the results of the study true
or credible.

Credibility. The “truth” of the findings, as viewed through the eyes of those being observed or
interviewed and within the context in which the research is carried out.
 Credibility / Internal Validity
 Do the findings of the study make sense?

 Are they credible to the people we study and to our readers?

 Do we have an authentic portrait of what we were looking at?

 How congruent are the findings with reality?

 Many things raise questions about credibility, including: Differences in the

interpretation of the researchers and errors at the time of data collection in the
field for one reason or another.
The following provisions may be made by researchers to promote
confidence that they have accurately recorded the phenomena under
scrutiny:

The adoption of research methods well random sampling of tactics to help ensure honesty in
established both in qualitative investigation in individuals to serve as informants when contributing data
general and information science in particular informants

the development of an early familiarity with the Triangulation, “the necessity of obtaining a variety Iterative
culture of participating organisations before the of perspectives in order to get a better, more stable questioning
first data collection dialogues take place view of ‘reality’ based on a wide spectrum of
observations from a wide base of points in time-
space”;
The following provisions may be made by researchers to promote
confidence that they have accurately recorded the phenomena under
scrutiny:

negative peer scrutiny of background, thick description of the

case the research qualifications and phenomenon under
analysis project. experience of the scrutiny
investigator

frequent debriefing sessions between the the researcher’s member checks examination of previous research
researcher and his or her superiors, “reflective findings to assess the degree to which
such as a project director or steering group commentary”. the
project’s results are congruent with
those of past studies
Miles & Huberman, 1994, hlm. 278–279
 Transferability / External
Validity

Are they Do they fit? How far can they be

transferable to generalized?
other contexts?

external validity is concerned with the extent to which the

findings of one study can be applied to other situations or to a
wider population.
04 Transferability / external validity according to Lincoln and Guba (1985)

Transferability is achieved if the findings of a qualitative study are transferable to other similar

settings. Thick description of the setting, context, people, actions, and events studied is needed to
ensure transferability or external validity in quantitative terms. 

Transferability. The extent to which findings can be transferred to other settings. In order for findings
to be transferable, the contexts must be similar. Therefore, it is the role of the researcher to identify
key aspects of the context from which the findings emerge and the extent to which they may be
applicable to other contexts.
Some useful points to consider about this issue for a
qualitative study are as follows:

 The characteristics of the original sample of persons,  The report specifies any limits on sample selection and
settings, processes, and so on, are sufficiently fully critically examines its ability to generalize to other
described to permit adequate comparisons with other settings and contexts.
samples. Example:
1. the number of organisations taking part  The sampling is theoretically diverse enough to
in the study and where they are based; encourage broader applicability when relevant.
2. any restrictions in the type of people
who contributed data;
3. the number of participants involved in
the fieldwork;
4. the data collection methods that were
employed;
5. the number and length of the data
collection sessions;
6. the time period over which the data was
collected.
Some useful points to consider about this issue
for a qualitative study are as follows:

 The findings include enough “thick description” for

readers to assess the potential transferability and  Any theories and their transferability are explicitly
appropriateness for their own settings. stated.

 A range of readers report that the findings are  The report suggests settings where the findings
consistent with their own experiences. could fruitfully be tested further.

 The findings are congruent with, connected to, or  When possible, the findings have been replicated in
confirmatory of prior theory. other studies to assess their robustness.

 The processes and outcomes described in the

conclusions are applicable in comparable settings.
 Utilization/Application/Action we still need to know what the study does for
its participants—both researchers and researched—and for
Orientation its consumers

The level of usable knowledge The actions taken actually

Value-based or The The findings stimulate offered is worthwhile, ranging from help solve a local
ethical concerns findings are and provide intellectual consciousness raising and the problem.
and dilemmas intellectuall “payoff” for a reader, and development of insight or self-
are raised y and possibly ideas for his or understanding to broader
explicitly in the physically her own related research considerations—a theory to guide
report accessible project action, or policy advice. Or it may
to potential be local and specific—corrective
users recommendations or specific action
images

Users of the findings Users of the findings

have experienced a sense have learned or
of empowerment or developed new
increased control over capacities.
their lives