MATHEMATICS

IN THE MODERN
z
WORLD

Types of Reasoning

Polya’s 4-Step

Problem Solving
Problem Solving: Inductive and Deductive Reasoning
Two (2) Types of Reasoning
• Inductive Reasoning – is the process of reaching a general conclusion by examining specific examples
• Deductive Reasoning – is the process of reaching a conclusion by applying general assumptions, procedures, or principles
Examples:

Inductive Reasoning Deductive Reasoning

a. 3, 6,9, 12,15, ? Answer: 18 a. All home improvement cost more than the estimate. The contractor
Solution: estimated that my home improvement will cost $35,000. Thus my home
Each successive number is 3 larger than preceding number. Thus, we improvement will cost more than $35,000
predict that the next number in the list is 3 larger than 15, which is 18

b. Consider the following procedure: Pick a number. Multiply the number by b. Pick a number. Multiply the number by 8, add 6 to the product, divide sum
8, add 6 to the product, divide the sum by 2, and subtract 3. by 2, and subtract 3.
Solution: Solution:
Suppose we pick 5 as our original number. Then the procedure would Let n represent the original number.
produce the following results: Mulitply the number by 8: 8n
Original number: 5 Add 6 to the product: 8n + 6
Multiply by 8: 8 x 5 = 40 Divide the sum by 2: (8n + 6) / 2 = 4n + 3
Add 6: 40 + 6 = 46 Subtract by 3: 4n + 3 -3 = 4n
Divide by 2: 46 / 2 = 23 Started with n and ended with 4n. The procedure given in this example
Subtract 3: 23 – 3 = 20 produces a number that is four times the original number.
Starting with 10 produces, a final result of 40. Starting with 100 produces
final result of 400. In each of these cases the resulting number is four times
the original number. Our conjecture is that following the given procedure
produces a number that is four times the original number.
*Conjecture means conclusion

c. Using the data in Table 1 and inductive reasoning. c. All numbers ending in 0 or 5 are divisible by 5. The number 35 ends with
i. If a pendulum has a length of 49 units, what is its period? 5, so it must be divisible by 5.
ii. If the length of a pendulum is quadruapled, what happens to its period?
Solution:
i. Each pendulum has a period with a length of 4 units has a period that is
twice that we conjecture that a pendulum with a length of 49 units will have a
period of 7 heartbeats.
ii. A pendulum with a length of 4 units has a period that is twice that of a
pendulum with a length of 1 unit. A pendulum with a length of 16 units has a
period that is twice that of a pendulum with a length of 4 units. It appears
that quadrupling the length of a pendulum doubles its period.
Problem Solving: Inductive and Deductive Reasoning

Table 1 Counterexamples
A statement is a true statement provided that it is true in all cases. If there’s one
Length of Period of
pendulum, in pendulum, in case for which a statement is not true called a counterexample, then the statement
units heartbeats is a false statement.

Example:
1 1 all numbers x: a. |x| > 0 b. x2 > x c. = x

4 2 For
Solution:
9 3 A statement may have many counterexamples, but only one is needed to verify that
that the statement is false.
16 4 a. Let x = 0 Then |0| = 0. Because 0 is not greater than 0. Thus “for all numbers x,
|x| > 0” is a false statement.
25 5
b. For x = 1 we have 12 = 1. Since is not greater than 1, “for all numbers x, “x2 > x”
is a false statement.
36 6
c. Consider x = -2. Then = = 2. Since 2 is not equal to -2, “ = x” is a false
statement.

Additional Notes

Deductive reasoning works from the more general to the more specific. Sometimes this is
informally called a "top-down" approach.
Inductive reasoning works the other way, moving from specific observations to broader
generalizations and theories. Informally, we sometimes call this a "bottom up" approach. It
begins with specific observations and measures, to detect patterns and regularities,
formulate some tentative hypotheses, and finally end up developing some general
conclusions or theories
(Source: https://library.royalroads.ca/writing-centre/writing/argumentation/building-argument/types-reasoning-deductive-vs-inductive)
Problem Solving with Patterns

Sequence is an ordered list of number. The numbers in a sequence separated by commas are called terms.
an subscript notation is used to designate the nth term of a sequence. That is,
a1 represents the first term of a sequence
a2 represents the second term of a sequence
a3 represents the third term of a sequence
.
.
.
an represents the nth term of a sequence

Most often a difference table is constructed to determine the next term and formula / rule to be used to
generate the next term. This difference table shows the differences between successive terms of the
sequence. In Figure 1 below, the differences in row (1) are called first differences of the sequence. The
differences of the first differences are called second differences. It follows that the differences of the
second differences are called third differences.

Figure 1. Difference Table Example

Problem Solving with Patterns

In some cases, patterns are used to predict a formula called nth-term formula.

Examples
1. Consider the formula an = 3n2 + n. This formula defines a sequence and provides a method for finding any term of the sequence. If we
replace n with 1, 2, 3, 4, and 6 then the above formula generates the sequence 4, 14, 30, 52, 80, 114. To find the 20 th term, replace each n
with 20. a20 = 3(20)2 + 20 = 1220
2. Assume the pattern shown by the square tiles in the following figures continues.

a. What is the nth-term formula for the number of tiles in the nth figure of the sequence?
b. How many tiles are in the eight figure of the sequence?
c. Which figure will consist of exactly 320 tiles?
Solution
a. Examine the figures for patterns. Note that the second figure has two tiles on each of the horizontal sections and one tile between
the horizontal sections. The third figure has three tiles on each horizontal section and two tiles between the horizontal sections. The
fourth figure has four tiles on each horizontal section and three tiles between the horizontal sections.

Thus the number of tiles in the nth figure is given by two groups of n plus a group of n less one. That is,
an = 2n + (n – 1)
an = 3n – 1
b. The number of tiles in the eighth figure of the sequence is 3(8) – 1 = 23.
c. To determine which figure in the sequence will have 320 tiles, solve the equation 3n -1 = 320.
3n -1 = 320
3n = 321 * Add 1 to each side.
n = 107 * Divide each side by 3.
The 107th figure is composed of 320 tiles.
Problem Solving with Patterns and Problem-Solving Strategies

A recursive definition of a sequence is one in which each successive term of the

sequence is defined by using some of the preceding terms.
Using the mathematical notation Fn to represent the nth Fibonacci number then the
numbers in the Fibonacci sequence are given by the following recursive definition.

The Fibonacci Numbers

F1 = 1, F2 =1, and Fn = Fn-1 + Fn-2 for n 3.

Polya’s Four-Step Problem-Solving Strategy

1. Understand the problem.

2. Devise a plan (translate).
3. Carry out the plan (solve).
4. Review the solution (check and interpret).
Problem Solving with Patterns and Problem-Solving Strategies
Problem Solving with Patterns and Problem-Solving Strategies

Examples:

Solve similar but simpler problem Make an organized list

Problem Solving with Patterns and Problem-Solving Strategies

Examples:

Solve similar but simpler problem Make a table and look for a pattern
Problem Solving with Patterns and Problem-Solving Strategies

Examples:

Work backwards Guess and check

Problem Solving with Patterns and Problem-Solving Strategies

Examples:

Deceptive Use graphs