AC

Fundamentals &
Circuit Theory
Prepared by: Monmoy Jahan
Basic
Definitions
Cycle
• One complete set of positive
and negative values of
alternating quantity is known
as a cycle.
• A cycle may also be
sometimes specified in terms
of angular measure. In that
case, one complete cycle is
said 360 or 2 radians.
Time Period

• The time taken by an alternating quantity to

complete one cycle is called its time period T.
For example, a 50Hz alternating current has a
time period of 1/50 second.
Frequency
• The number of cycles/ second
is called the frequency of the
alternating quantity. Its unit is
hertz (Hz).
Amplitude
• The maximum value, positive or negative of an
alternating quantity is known as its amplitude.
Electrical Charge

• Electricity is the movement of electrons. Electrons create

charge, which we can harness to do work. Your lightbulb,
your stereo, your phone, etc., are all harnessing the
movement of the electrons in order to do work. They all
operate using the same basic power source: the movement
of electrons.
• Current is the rate of flow of electric charge. A potential
difference (voltage) across an electrical component is
needed to make a current flow through it.
Electrical • The three basic principles for this tutorial can
be explained using electrons, or more
specifically, the charge they create:
Charge • Voltage is the difference in charge between two
points.
• Current is the rate at which charge is flowing.
• Resistance is a material's tendency to resist the
flow of charge (current).
Voltage • Voltage is the pressure from an electrical circuit's
power source that pushes charged electrons (current)
 through a conducting loop, enabling them to do
work such as illuminating a light.
• In brief, voltage = pressure, and it is measured
in volts (V).
• In electricity's early days, voltage was known
as electromotive force (emf). This is why in
equations such as Ohm's Law, voltage is represented
by the symbol E.
• Voltage is either alternating current (ac)
voltage or direct current (dc) voltage.
Measuring voltage

• Voltage is measured using a voltmeter. Some

types of voltmeter have a pointer on a dial,
but most have a digital readout. To measure
the voltage across a component in a circuit,
you must connect the voltmeter
in parallel with it.
• Circuit with cell, lamp and voltmeter. The
voltmeter is connected in parallel to the lamp.
Measuring voltage

• You can measure the voltage across a

cell or battery. The more cells, the
bigger the voltage.

• Two circuits with different voltages

 Resistance

• Resistance is an electrical quantity that measures how the device or

material reduces the electric current flow through it.
• The resistance is measured in units of ohms (Ω).
• Resistance calculation with ohm's law :-

• R is the resistance of the resistor in ohms (Ω).

• V is the voltage drop on the resistor in volts (V).
• I is the current of the resistor in amperes (A).
Resistance
The unit ohm (Ω) is named honor of
the great German physicist and
mathematician Georg Simon Ohm.

In the SI system, an ohm is equal to 1

volt per ampere. Therefore, the
resistance is also measured in volt per
ampere.
Resistors
• The circuit symbol for
resistors is shown
Electric Resistance Formula

• The basic formula for resistance is:

• The relationship between Resistance, Voltage and Current (
Ohm’s Law)
• The relationship between Resistance, Power, and Voltage
• The relationship between Resistance, Power, and Current
• These relationships are summarised in the image below.
Resistance • According’s to ohm’s law –

Formula 1 •   
• Thus, the resistance is the ratio of supply
(Ohm’s voltage and current.

Law)
REVIEW:

• Voltage is measured in volts, symbolized by the letters “E” or “V”.

• Current is measured in amps, symbolized by the letter “I”.
• Resistance is measured in ohms, symbolized by the letter “R”.
• Ohm’s Law: E = IR ; I = E/R ; R = E/I
Form Factor
• Definition 1.
• The ratio of r.m.s value of alternative current and average value of
alternative current is define as Form Factor.
• Definition 2.
• The ratio of the root mean square value to the average value of an
alternating quantity (current or voltage) is called Form Factor. The
average of all the instantaneous values of current and voltage over
one complete cycle is known as the average value of the alternating
quantities.
Crest or Peak or
Amplitude
Factor

• The ratio of maximum value and r.m.s value of

alternative current is define as Crest or Peak or
Amplitude Factor.
• The maximum value attained by an alternating
quantity during one cycle is called its Peak value.
It is also known as the maximum value or
amplitude or crest value. The sinusoidal
alternating quantity obtains its peak value at 90
degrees as shown in the figure below.
• The peak values of alternating voltage and current
is represented by Em and Im respectively.
R.M.S
• The term “RMS” stands for “Root-Mean-Squared”.
• R.M.S define this as the “amount of AC power that produces the
same heating effect as an equivalent DC power”.
• The RMS value is the square root of the mean (average) value of the
squared function of the instantaneous values. The symbols used for
defining an RMS value are VRMS or IRMS.
• The term RMS, ONLY refers to time-varying sinusoidal voltages,
currents or complex waveforms were the magnitude of the
waveform changes over time and is not used in DC circuit analysis
or calculations where the magnitude is always constant.
• When used to compare the equivalent RMS voltage value of an
alternating sinusoidal waveform that supplies the same electrical
power to a given load as an equivalent DC circuit, the RMS value is
called the “effective value” and is generally presented as: Veff or Ieff.
R.M.S
Average
• Definition: The average of all the instantaneous values
of an alternating voltage and currents over one complete
cycle is called Average Value.

Value • If we consider symmetrical waves like sinusoidal current

or voltage waveform, the positive half cycle will be
exactly equal to the negative half cycle. Therefore, the
average value over a complete cycle will be zero.
• The work is done by both, positive and negative cycle
and hence the average value is determined without
considering the signs.
Average
Value
• So, the only positive half cycle is
considered to determine the average
value of alternating quantities of
sinusoidal waves. Let us take an example
to understand it.
• Divide the positive half cycle into (n)
number of equal parts as shown in the
above figure –

Let i1, i2, i3…….. in be the mid ordinates.

Average
Value The Average value of current Iav = mean of the
mid ordinates
Phase &
Phase
Difference
Phase

• Generally, the phase-in electricity is the current or the voltage among an existing wire as well as
a neutral cable. Phase means the distribution of load, if a single wire is used, an additional load
will occur on it & if three wires are used then loads will be separated between them. This can be
called as less power for 1-phase and more power for 3-phase.
• If it is a 1-phase system, it includes two wires and when it is a 3-phase system, then it consists
of either 3 wires (or) four wires. Both the power systems like single phase as well as three-phase
 use AC power to refer units. Because the current flow using AC power is always in the direction
of alternating. The main difference between these two supplies is the reliability of delivery.
Phase

• Definition: The phase of an
alternating quantity is defined as the
divisional part of a cycle through
which the quantity moves forward
from a selected origin. When the
two quantities have the same
frequency, and their maximum and
minimum point achieve at the same
point, then the quantities are said to
have in the same phase.
 Definition: The phase difference between the two
electrical quantities is defined as the angular phase

Phase difference between the maximum possible value of the

two alternating quantities having the same frequency.

Differenc In other words, the two alternating quantities have phase

e difference when they have the same frequency, but they

attain their zero value at the different instant. The angle
between zero points of two alternating quantities is called
angle of phase differences.

Consider the two alternating currents of magnitudes

Im1 and Im2 are shown vectorially. Both the vector is
rotating at the same angular velocity of ω radians per
seconds. The two current obtains the zero value at
different instants. Therefore, they are said to have the
phase difference of angle φ.
Phase
Differenc
e