2: Forms and Function of English language

This section contains language functions and forms that native English
speakers acquire mostly before entering school or naturally at home.

These language functions and forms, however, need to be explicitly taught

to English language learners (ELLs). They may be taught to ELLs at all grade
levels, and as the need arises.
LANGUAGE FUNCTIONS and FORMS
The contrast between form and function in language can be illustrated
through a simple medical analogy. If doctors studied only a limited portion
of the human system, such as anatomical form, they would be unable to
adequately address their patient’s needs. To fully treat their patients,
physicians must understand the purposes of the human body and the
relationships between organs, cells, and genes (Pozzi, 2004).

Similarly, ELLs need to understand both the form (structure) and

the function (purpose) of the English language in order to reach
higher levels of proficiency.

Pozzi, D.C. (2004). Forms and functions in language: Morphology, syntax.

Retrieved March 10, 2005, from University of Houston, College of Education
Forms of a language deal with the internal grammatical structure of words. The
relationship between boy and boys, for example, and the relationship (irregular)
between man and men would be forms of a language.

A language function refers to the purpose for which speech or writing is being used.
In oral discourse these include:
• giving instructions
• introducing ourselves
• making requests etc

In academic writing we use a range of specific functions in order to communicate

ideas clearly.
These include:
• describing processes
• comparing or contrasting things or ideas, and
• clarifying ideas etc
 Functions of Language

1. Informative language function:

Is the communication of information.
Use in Science
Have a truth value; that is, the sentences are either true or false
Hence, they are important for logic.

2. Expressive language function:

Expression of feelings or attitudes of the speaker/writer that may evoke feelings in the
listener/reader
Examples: Poetry and literature
Two main aspects of this function are generally noted:
(1) evoking certain feelings and (2) expressing feelings.
Expressive discourse: is best regarded as neither true or false.
E.g. Dickens' "It was the best of times, it was the worst of times; it was the age of wisdom; it
was the age of foolishness…"
“Logic" of "fictional statements" is an interesting area of inquiry for readers and literature
students.
 3. Directive language function:
is most commonly found in commands and requests. (Imperatives)
Example of this function: "Close the windows."
The sentence "You're smoking in a non-smoking area," although
declarative, can be used to mean "Do not smoke in this area.“

It is important to recognize the function of spoken/written discourse to

understand its meaning.

Example:
A person who says to the waiter, "I would like a cup of coffee," is not just
reporting a psychological state of affairs.

It would be inappropriate for the waiter to respond with, "Speaking of

things one would like, I'd rather have a BMW.“
 List of most commonly used English functions :
Asking for and giving opinions
Explaining and justifying
Asking for clarifications, giving clarifications
Expressing agreement and disagreement
Interrupting
Describing people
Introducing oneself and giving personal info
Talking about likes and dislikes
Talking about interests
Expressing preferences
Making complaints
Giving warnings
Asking for advice and giving advice
Asking for more detailed information
Making suggestions and responding to suggestions – accepting & declining
Making plans and making proposals, talking in favour or against a proposal
Making predictions
Giving descriptions, Making comparisons, Making generalizations, Expressing disappointment
1. Kristin : Hello, Adam, Happy Birthday to you !
Adam : Thank you. Do come in. I'm glad you have come.
              
 
  (A) To wish  

(B) To request
 
  (C) To welcome  
 
  (D) to inform  
              
2. Keane : The race will start at 8 a.m., won't it ?
 
Clerk : That's right. After registration, you have to assemble at the starting line in the field.
              
 
  (A) To inform  

(B) To greet
 
  (C) request  
 
  (D) To describe  
              
3. Lily : Lehman fell while climbing up the rambutan tree.
 
Rose : I shouldn't have asked him to pluck the rambutans.
              
 
  (A) To complain  

(B) To regret
 
  (C) To apologize  
 
  (D) To advise
4.
Ronnie : Our team played badly.
 
Mat : It's all your fault. You have let the team down.
              
   (A) To advise  
(B) To blame
   (C) To warn  
   (D) To protest  
              
5.
David : Hello, Sam. You look worried. can I help you ?
 
Sam : Could you lend me twenty dollars ? I need it urgently.
              
   (A) To inform  
(B) To describe
   (C) To offer  
   (D) To request  
              
6.
Billy : Why don't you borrow Aileen's bicycle ?
 
Sarah : Her bicycle has a flat tyre.
              
   (A) To offer  
(B) To explain
   (C) To advise  
   (D) To instruct  
 
     
7. Student 1 : You stole my pen, didn't you ? You thief !
Student 2 : What ? Me ?
              
   (A) to accuse  
(B) to ask  
   (C) to announce  
   (D) to threaten  
              
8.
Teacher : Didn't you apply for the scholarship for needy children ?
Mariah : Not actually. It was the scholarship for servicemen's children.
              
   (A) to agree  
(B) to reject
   (C) to disagree  
   (D) to decline  
              
9.
Husband : It's all your fault that we're late. Can't you learn to dress faster ?
 
Wife : My fault ? Rubbish. You were still shaving at eight o'clock.

              
   (A) to threaten  
(B) to reject
   (C) to disapprove  
   (D) to blame
Sentence Function

Sentences are also defined according to function:

Declarative
Interrogative
Exclamatory
Imperative
1. Declarative sentence - A sentence that is a statement. It is followed by a
period.
Example: Bill gave his report to the teacher.

2. Interrogative sentence - A sentence that is a question. It is followed by a

question mark.
Example: Did you know the answer?

3. Imperative sentence: A sentence that is a command or request. it is followed by

a period. The subject is always "you" understood.
Example: Close the door. Please eat your food.

4. Exclamatory sentence: A sentence that expresses a feeling. It is followed by an

exclamation mark or a period.
Example: Wow! What a great surprise!
 Exercise
Write down the type of each sentence. Decide by the function of the sentence
and mark down the end punctuation.
1. Are you aware of the appointment tomorrow
2. Eat your supper
3. what a beautiful morning
4. Today is my birthday
5. What gifts did you receive for your birthday
6. Pay the bill
7.Have you finished your homework
8. Debby, turn off the light
9. Brian participated in the baseball tournament
Sentence Structure
Sentence Variation
Sentence Structure:

Difficulty with sentence structure is often times what

results in incomprehensible sentences and failure to convey
meaning.
Phrases and Clauses

1. in the office -
2. pick up –
3. a friendly dog –

4. because the shoes didn’t fit

5. when it is raining
6. after my friend arrived

7. I want some cereal.

8. Please pass me the salt.
Phrase:
two or more words that do not contain the subject-verb pair necessary to form a clause.
This group of words makes some sense together, although it does not express a complete thought.
For example: around the corner, in the house, beyond the trees, after the play, etc.
Act as a part of speech but cannot stand alone as a sentence.

Clause: Like a phrase, a clause is a group of related words, but unlike a phrase, a clause has a
subject and predicate. A clause is a more complete expression.

There are two kinds of clauses:

1. Dependent Clause: expresses only part of an idea, and relies upon some other information in the
sentence for complete meaning
We usually use dependent clauses in sentences to express thoughts that are additional or accessory
to our main thought in the sentence.
2. Independent Clause: an independent clause is a group of related words that has both a subject
(actor) and verb (action) and makes sense to us without needing any additional information.
Therefore, an independent clause is also known as a simple sentence. It is not just part of a thought,
but is complete on its own.
When combined with phrases or dependent clauses, independent clauses form the basis of compound
and complex sentences.
Alone, an independent clause expresses one main complete thought.
 Combine the noun phrases
Phrases and verb phrases to make
complete sentences.

1. a noun (and its modifiers)

the City College book fair many culturally diverse students

those poisonous red apples on the table

the drawer next to the bed

talented and helpful tutors

2. a verb (and the words that follow)

have been playing all night long
attend this school
will be in high demand
open were for Snow White and not for you
is always in October
Noun phrase:

A noun phrase includes a noun—a person, place, or thing—and the modifiers—

either before or after—which distinguish it.
The pattern looks like this:
O P T I O N A L M O D I F I E R ( S ) + N OUN + O P T I O N A L M O D I F I E R ( S )

A great English teacher

Teacher = noun; a, great, English = modifiers.

With her love of Shakespeare and knowledge of grammar, Jasmine will someday be a great
English teacher.
Verb phrases:

Sometimes a sentence can communicate its meaning with a one-word verb. Other times, however, a
sentence will use a verb phrase, a multi-word verb, to express action or condition.

Had cleaned
Had = auxiliary verb; clean = main verb; ed = verb ending.

Should have been writing

Should, have, been = auxiliary verbs; write = main verb; ing = verb ending.

Must wash
Must = auxiliary verb; wash = main verb.

Mom had just cleaned the refrigerator shelves when Lawrence knocked over the pitcher of orange juice.

Sarah should have been writing her research essay, but she couldn't resist another short chapter in her
Stephen King novel.

If guests are coming for dinner, we must wash our smelly dog!
Infinitive phrase:

Cheryl plans to take microbiology next semester when Professor Crum, a pushover, is teaching the
course.
To sleep all night was his only wish.

Participle phrase:

Elijah likes his eggs smothered in cheese sauce.

Shrunk in the dryer, the jeans hung above John's ankles.
The soldiers, trapped by the enemy, threw down their guns.

Gerund phrase:

Susie tried holding the slippery trout , but the fish flipped out of her hands and splashed back into the
stream.
The senator made his reputation by talking often and loudly.
Prepositional Phrases
begin with a preposition and end with a noun, pronoun, or gerund.
On time
On = preposition; time = noun.

Underneath the sagging yellow couch

Underneath = preposition; the, sagging, yellow = modifiers; couch = noun.

From eating too much

From = preposition; eating = gerund; too, much = modifiers.

A prepositional phrase will function as an adjective or adverb.

As an adjective, the prepositional phrase will answer the question Which one?
As an adverb, a prepositional phrase will answer questions such as How? When? or Where?

The spider above the kitchen sink has just caught a fat fly.
The vegetables on Noel's plate lay untouched the entire meal.

After breakfast, we piled the dirty dishes in the sink.

Amber finally found the umbrella wedged under the passenger's front seat.
Independent clauses
When they are part of longer sentences, they are referred to as independent (or main) clauses.
Two or more independent clauses can be joined by using coordinating conjunctions
(and, but, for, nor, or, so, and yet) or by using semicolons.

In the following example the independent clause is a simple sentence.

Erica brushed her long, raven hair. Fernando left.

Here, the coordinating conjunction and joins two independent clauses:

Fernando left and Erica brushed her long, raven hair.

Here, a semicolon joins two independent clauses:

Fernando left; Erica brushed her long, raven hair.

All sentences must include at least one independent clause.

After she told Fernando to leave, Erica brushed her long, raven hair.
The independent clause is preceded by a clause that can’t stand alone.

Erica brushed her long, raven hair while she waited for Fernando to leave.
The independent clause is followed by a clause that can’t stand alone.
After Amy sneezed all over the tuna salad
After = subordinate conjunction; Amy = subject; sneezed = verb.

Once Adam smashed the spider

Once = subordinate conjunction; Adam = subject; smashed = verb.

Who ate handfuls of nuts with his bare hands

Who = relative pronoun; Who = subject; ate = verb.

Subordinate clauses:

A subordinate clause has a subject and predicate but, unlike an independent clause, cannot stand by
itself. It depends on something else to express a complete thought, which is why it is also called a
dependent clause.
Some subordinate clauses are introduced by relative pronouns (who, whom, that, which, what, whose) and
some by subordinating conjunctions (although, because, if, unless, when, etc.). Subordinate clauses
function in sentences as adjectives, nouns, and adverbs.

Relative clauses:
begins with a relative pronoun and functions as an adjective.

The ceremony, which several celebrities attended, received intense coverage.

Pronoun case in subordinate clause

In deciding which case of who you should use in a clause, remember this important rule: The case of the
pronoun is governed by the role it plays in its own clause, not by its relation to the rest of the sentence.

We asked whomever we saw for a reaction to the play.

We asked whoever called us to call back later.

In each sentence the clause is the direct object of asked. But in the first sentence, whomever is correct because
within its clause it is the object of saw, while in the second sentence, whoever is correct because it is the
subject of called.
 Subordinate Conjunctions

after once until

although provided that when
as rather than whenever
because since where
before so that whereas
even if than wherever
even though that whether
if though while
in order that unless why

Relative pronoun

that who whose

which whoever whosever
whichever whom whomever
Noun clauses

A noun clause serves as a noun in a sentence.

You must unlearn what you have learned.

How you managed to make so much money in such a short time has recently
occupied my mind.

The vacation is what I need most. (complement of the linking verb is)

Give it to whoever arrives first. (object of the preposition to)

 Adjective clause

is a subordinate clause that modifies a noun or pronoun by telling what kind or

which one.
Adjective clauses act like adjectives.

The bag that someone left on the bus belongs to Mrs. Smith.

Can be removed from the sentence

Adverbial clauses
Many subordinate clauses begin with subordinating conjunctions called adverbial
clauses. Examples of these conjunctions are because, unless, if, when, and although.
The clauses act as adverbs, answering questions like when, where, why, to what
extent, and under what conditions.

While Mauna Loa was erupting and spewing fountains of lava into the air, we drove
away as quickly as we could.

In the preceding sentence, while is a subordinating conjunction introducing the

adverbial clause; the subject of the clause is Mauna Loa and the predicate is was
erupting and [was] spewing. This clause is dependent because it is an incomplete
thought.
What happened while the volcano was erupting?
The independent clause we drove away as quickly as we could completes the thought.
The adverbial clause answers the question “When did we drive?”
  Common conjunctions

Contrast clauses  although; though; even though; while;

Reason clauses because; since; as

Place clauses where; wherever; everywhere
Purpose clauses so that; so; because + want
Result clauses so that; so … that; such … that
when; before; after; since; while; as; as
Time clauses
soon as; by the time; until

Conditional clauses  if; unless; provided (that); as long as

 
 She took a computer course so that she I didn't call her because I'm shy
could get a better job.
Type Question answered Example

Wherever there are computers,

Place Where?
there is Microsoft software.

After the fruit is harvested, it is

Time When?
sold at the market.

Cause Why? (What caused this?) I didn't call her because I'm shy.

Why? (What was the reason for She took a computer course so
Purpose
doing this?) that she could get a better job.

If you save your money, you will

Condition Under what conditions?
be able to go to college.
Directions: Identify each item as an independent clause or a dependent clause.

Independent 
1. Because it's the best solution.
Dependent
Independent
2. Working at this job is a lot of fun.
  Dependent
Independent
3. It doesn't really interest me.
  Dependent
Independent
4. I should have given her a ride.
  Dependent
Independent
5. After the movie is over.
  Dependent
Independent
6. If he ever calls.
  Dependent
Independent
7. Whenever I have the time.
  Dependent
Independent
8. There could be a problem.
  Dependent
Independent
9. Since the last time they visited.
  Dependent
Independent
10. Whenever it gets cold
  Dependent
 Complete Sentences
A sentence is a complete thought. It begins with a capital letter and ends with a period, and always
has at least one independent clause.
He has every attribute of a dog except loyalty. (Thomas P Gore)
The important point to remember is that every sentence must have at least one main clause.
Otherwise, you have a fragment, a major error.
A complete sentence includes:
1. Subject
2. Verb (may need a direct object or complement)
3. Complete Thought/Idea
e.g. Marcel understands the importance of attending class regularly.

subject verb

Shu, Tony, and Ana studied together after class.

verb
subject 34
 CAUTION!
Not all complete sentences have a stated subject. The
command form (also known as the imperative) has you as
the implied subject. This sentence structure is not
common in academic writing.
 Subjects
The subject may be
A single noun College is challenging.
The English Center can help you succeed.
A noun phrase

A pronoun
It is open Monday through Friday.

Two or more nouns, noun phrases or pronouns Rose, Todd, Humberto, and Jess are all tutors
there.
A gerund (verb + -ing) Online tutoring is available on weekends.
An infinitive (To + verb) To err is human.
.

36
Complements
A complement is a word or words that follow the verb
but aren’t direct objects. Depending on the verb,
some are obligatory.
Rufus seems.

is not a complete sentence because the verb requires

a complement. The example should be:
Rufus seems extraordinarily sleepy.

Rufus walks.

This is a complete sentence. However, we can add a

complement if we want to be more precise. The
example could be:
Rufus walks vigorously
Complements

There are three types of phrases that can act as complements.

1. A noun or noun phrase
1.George Michael is a brilliant lyricist.

2. An adjective or adjective phrase

2.George Michael is brilliant.

3. A prepositional phrase
3.George Michael is on tour.
 The hungry man gulped down whatever the landlady offered him.

 The bag that someone left on the bus belongs to Mrs. Smith.

 She cried because her seashell was broken.

 Whoever leaves last should turn off the lights.

 I do not know what the future holds, but I know who holds the future. – Oprah Winfrey

 You must unlearn what you have learned.

 He retired early because he had made so much money.

“Unlike medicine or the other sciences, writing has no new discoveries to spring
on us. We're in no danger of reading in our morning newspaper that a
breakthrough has been made in how to write a clear English sentence—that
information has been around since the King James Bible.”

__ William Zinsser in On Writing Well

 Sentence variation
Simple sentence
Compound sentence
Complex sentence
Compound-complex sentence
Your ability to vary sentence types in your writing will allow you to control the pacing and clarity of your
paragraphs.

A simple sentence has one independent clause and no subordinate clauses.

Old-growth forests in the United States are disappearing.
Citizens must act.
A compound sentence has two or more independent clauses, joined by coordinating conjunctions, and no
subordinate clauses.
Old-growth forests in the United States are disappearing, and citizens must act. (two independent clauses
joined by and)
A complex sentence contains one independent clause and one or more subordinate clauses.
Because old growth forests in the United States are fast disappearing, citizens must act now.
Forests that have existed for thousands of years are in danger.

A compound-complex sentence joins two or more independent clauses with one or more subordinate clauses.
Forests that have existed for thousands of years are in danger, and citizens must take action.
(Forests are in danger and citizens must take action = independent clauses; that have existed for thousands of
years = subordinate clause)

After the teacher chose groups, John and Sara were selected as partners for a project, yet
Sarah did most of the work.
Practice:
Identify whether the sentences are simple, complex, compound or compound-
complex. Please underline dependent clauses where it applies.

1. Vampires Dairies is my favorite television show, but I also love True Blood.
2. The student wiped the white board that was filthy with last week’s notes.
3. The trendy fashion designer released her new line on Wednesday.
4. Adam and Laura went to a bar in Hollywood to celebrate their anniversary.
5. Wicked girl cast a spell on the entire city, so the citizens decided to rebel.
6. While waiting for the paint to dry, Angela went to garage, and Martin
organized the kitchen appliances.
Sentence Variety Writing Challenge:
How many ways can you rewrite, expand, reorder, reword the following sentences?
The sky is blue.
Examples:
Blue skies like these make my day.
There isn't a cloud in the sky.
It's a clear day.
You won't get a finer day than today.
The sky is as blue as the sea.
Have you ever seen such a blue sky?
1. What a fine day!
2. I am sick.
3. I have school tomorrow.
4. My room is small.
5. Andrea is busy.
6. There's nothing to do.
7. It's cold in this house.
8. I don't want to be late.
9. I'm hungry.