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Unit 18: Discrete Mathematics

Discrete mathematics is the study of mathematical structures that are discrete rather than continuous. It examines countable or finite elements, and includes topics like logic, set theory, combinatorics, graph theory, probability, and algorithms. Discrete mathematics finds applications in computer science and engineering for problems involving discrete quantities.

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35 views

Unit 18: Discrete Mathematics

Discrete mathematics is the study of mathematical structures that are discrete rather than continuous. It examines countable or finite elements, and includes topics like logic, set theory, combinatorics, graph theory, probability, and algorithms. Discrete mathematics finds applications in computer science and engineering for problems involving discrete quantities.

Uploaded by

Ryda S
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
Available Formats
Download as PPTX, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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Unit 18

Discrete Mathematics
Why Mathematics?
Design efficient computer systems.
 How did Google manage to build a fast search engine?

 What is the foundation of internet security?

algorithms, data structures, database,


parallel computing, distributed systems,
cryptography, computer networks…

Logic, number theory, counting, set, graph theory…


What Is Discrete Mathematics?
• What it isn’t: continuous
• Discrete: consisting of distinct or unconnected
elements
• Countably Infinite

• Definition Discrete Mathematics

• Discrete Mathematics is a collection of mathematical


topics that examine and use finite or countably
infinite mathematical objects.

3
What is Discrete Mathematics?

• Discrete mathematics is the branch of mathematics handling objects


that only considers distinct, separated values.

• It is steadily being applied in the multiple domains of mathematics and


computer science. It is accounted as a very effective approach for
developing and problem-solving strength.

• Discrete Mathematics focuses on the systematic study of


Mathematical structures that are essentially discrete in nature and
does not demand the belief of continuity.
What is Discrete Mathematics?
• In simple words, discrete mathematics gives an individual the ability
to understand mathematical language that can be learned through
various branches of it.
Set Theory
• A set is a collection of some items (elements). We often use capital letters
to denote a set. To define a set we can simply list all the elements in curly
brackets { } separated by commas.

A set is a collection of things (elements).


• for example to define a set A that consists of the two elements ♣ and ♢, we
write A={♣,♢}
• To say that ♢ belongs to A, we write ♢∈A, where "∈" is pronounced "belongs to." To
say that an element does not belong to a set, we use ∉. For example, we may
write ♡∉A.
• Note that ordering does not matter, so the two sets {♣,♢}{♣,♢} and {♢,♣}{♢,♣} are
equal.
Set Theory
Set Theory
Set Builder Notation
• We can also define a set by mathematically stating the properties satisfied by the
elements in the set. In particular, we may write
• A={x|x satisfies some property}A={x|x satisfies some property}
or
A={x:x satisfies some property}A={x:x satisfies some property}
The symbols "|" and ":" are pronounced "such that."

Example
•If the set C is defined as C={x|x∈Z,−2≤x<10}C={x|x∈Z,−2≤x<10}, then C={−2,−1,0,⋯,9}

• If the set D is defined as D={x2|x∈N}D={x2|x∈N}, then D={1,4,9,16,⋯}D={1,4,9,16,⋯}.


•The set of rational numbers can be defined as Q={a/b|a,b∈Z,b≠0}Q={ab|a,b∈Z,b≠0}.
Set Theory
Examples for Sets

• “Standard” Sets:
• Natural numbers N = {0, 1, 2, 3, …}
• Integers Z = {…, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, …}
• Positive Integers Z+ = {1, 2, 3, 4, …}
• Real Numbers R = {47.3, -12, , …}
• Rational Numbers Q = {1.5, 2.6, -3.8, 15, …}

Sep 2021 Unit 18- Discrete Mathematics 9


Set Theory
Examples for Sets

• A= “empty set/null set”


• A = {z} Note: zA, but z  {z}
• A = {{b, c}, {c, x, d}}
• A = {{x, y}}
Note: {x, y} A, but {x, y}  {{x, y}}
• A = {x | P(x)}
“set of all x such that P(x)”
• A = {x | xN  x > 7} = {8, 9, 10, …}
“set builder notation”
Sep 2021 Unit 18- Discrete Mathematics 10
Set Theory

• Venn Diagrams
Venn diagrams are very useful in
visualizing relation between sets. In
a Venn diagram any set is depicted by a
closed region.

• In this figure, the big rectangle shows the


universal set S. The shaded area shows
another set A
Set Theory
Subsets
•A  B “A is a subset of B”
•A  B if and only if every element of A is also an
element of B.
• Useful rules:
•   A for any set A
• A  A for any set A
• Equivalently, we say B is a superset of A, or B ⊇ A. .
•Examples:

Venn Diagram for two sets A and B, where B⊂A.


Set Theory
• Proper Subsets
Set A is considered to be a proper subset of Set B if Set B example;
contains at least one element that is not present in Set A. • 2. A = {p, q, r}
• A proper subset is denoted by ⊂ B = {p, q, r, s, t}
• If A and B are two sets, then A is called the proper subset of B
if A ⊆ B but B ⊇ A i.e., A ≠ B Here A is a proper subset of
B as all the elements of set
example; A are in set B and also A ≠
B.
1) A = {1, 2, 3, 4}, Here n(A) = 4,
B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}, Here n(B) = 5

We observe that, all the elements of A are present in B but the element ‘5’
of B is not present in A. Notes:
• No set is a proper subset of itself.
So, we say that A is a proper subset of B. • Null set or ∅ is a proper subset of
Symbolically, we write it as A ⊂ B every set.

Sep 2021 Unit 18- Discrete Mathematics 13


Set Theory
• How many subsets and Example
proper subsets does a set
have? If set A has the
If a set has “n” elements, then the elements, A = {a, b},
number of subset of the given set then what is the subset
is 2n  & proper subset of the
And given set?
the number of proper subsets of
the given subset is given by 2n-1. 
Set Theory
• Power Set
• The power set is said to be the collection of all the subsets. It is represented by P(A).
• If A is set having elements {a, b}. Then the power set of A will be;
• P(A) =  {∅, {a}, {b}, {a, b}}
• For example;
If A = {p, q} then all the subsets of A will be

P(A) = {∅, {p}, {q}, {p, q}}

Number of elements of P(A) = n[P(A)] = 4 =2^2

In general, n[P(A)] = 2^m where m is the number of elements in set A.

Sep 2021 Unit 18- Discrete Mathematics 15


Set Theory
• Universal Set
• A set which contains all the elements of other given sets is called
a universal set. The symbol for denoting a universal set is ∪ or ξ.
• For example;
If A = {1, 2, 3}      B = {2, 3, 4}      C = {3, 5, 7}

then U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7}
[Here A ⊆ U, B ⊆ U, C ⊆ U and U ⊇ A, U ⊇ B, U ⊇ C]

Sep 2021 Unit 18- Discrete Mathematics 16


Set Theory
• Set Operations

• The union of two sets is a set containing all elements


that are in A or in B

• For example;
{1,2}∪{2,3}={1,2,3}
Thus, we can write x∈(A∪B) if and only if (x∈A) or (x∈B)
Note that A∪B=B∪A

Sep 2021 Unit 18- Discrete Mathematics 17


Set Theory
• Set Operations

The intersection of two sets A and B,


denoted by A∩B, consists of all
elements that are both in A and B

• For example;
{1,2}∩{2,3}={2}

Sep 2021 Unit 18- Discrete Mathematics 18


Set Theory
• Set Operations

The complement of a set A, denoted


by Ac or A¯ is the set of all
elements that are in the universal
set S but are not in A

Sep 2021 Unit 18- Discrete Mathematics 19


i

Set Theory
• Set Operations

The difference (subtraction) is defined as


follows. The set A−B consists of elements
that are in A but not in B

For example
A={1,2,3} and B={3,5},
then A−B={1,2}.

Sep 2021 Unit 18- Discrete Mathematics 20


i

Set Theory

• Set Operations

Two sets A and B are mutually
exclusive or disjoint if they do not have
any shared elements;

i.e., their intersection is the empty


set, A∩B=∅A∩B=∅.

Sep 2021 Unit 18- Discrete Mathematics 21


i

Set Theory
For example,
A Cartesian product  If A={1,2,3} and B={H,T},
of two sets A and B, written as A×B, is the set then
containing ordered pairs from A and B. A×B={(1,H),(1,T),(2,H),
(2,T),(3,H),(3,T)}.

That is, if C=A×B, then each element of C is


A×B is not the same as B×A.
of the form (x,y), where x∈A and y∈B:

A×B={(x,y)|x∈A and y∈B}.

Sep 2021 Unit 18- Discrete Mathematics 22

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