FACULTY OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY

Fall, 2021

MAT201: Calculus
Lecture 01: Limits and
Continuity

Nguyen Xuan Thang, PhD.

Contents

1 Definition of Limit of a function

2 Properties of Limits
3 Indeterminate form and Limit at infinity
4 One-sided Limits

5 Continuity of a function

Lecture 2 Calculus
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LIMITS

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Limits by example : A speeding train
• From data obtained in a test run conducted on a prototype of
train, which moves along a straight monorail track, engineers
have determined that the position of the train (in feet) from
the origin at time t is given by:
𝒔= 𝒇 ( 𝒕 )=𝟒 𝒕 𝟐 (𝟎 ≤𝒕 ≤ 𝟑𝟎)

• Where f is called the position function of the train.

• The position of the train at time t = 0, 1, 2, 3, … , 10 is
f(0) = 0 f(1) = 4 f(2) = 16 f(3) = 36 … f(10) = 400
• But what if we want to find the velocity of the train at any
given point in time?

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Limits by example : A speeding train
• Say we want to find the instant velocity of the train at t = 2.
• We may compute the average velocity of the train over an
interval of time, such as [2, 4] as follows:
𝟐 𝟐
𝑫𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒄𝒐𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒅 𝒇 ( 𝟒 ) − 𝒇 (𝟐) 𝟒(𝟒) − 𝟒(𝟐) 𝟔𝟒 −𝟏𝟔 𝒇𝒆𝒆𝒕
= = = =𝟐𝟒( )
𝑻𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝒆𝒍𝒂𝒑𝒔𝒆𝒅 𝟒−𝟐 𝟒−𝟐 𝟐 𝒔
• It is not the velocity of the train at t=2, but it is a useful
approximation.
• We may find a better approximation by choosing a smaller
interval to compute the speed, for example [2,3]. More
generally, let t>2 then the average velocity of the train over
the time interval [2,t] is given by:
𝟐 𝟐
𝑫𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒄𝒐𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒅 𝒇 ( 𝒕 ) − 𝒇 (𝟐) 𝟒 𝒕 − 𝟒(𝟐) (𝒕 ¿ ¿ 𝟐 −𝟒)
= = =𝟒 ¿
𝑻𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝒆𝒍𝒂𝒑𝒔𝒆𝒅 𝒕 −𝟐 𝒕 −𝟐 𝒕− 𝟐
Lecture 2 Calculus
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Limits by example : A speeding train
𝑫𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒄𝒐𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒅 (𝒕 ¿¿ 𝟐 − 𝟒)
=𝟒 ¿
𝑻𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝒆𝒍𝒂𝒑𝒔𝒆𝒅 𝒕 −𝟐
• By choosing the values of t closer and closer to 2, we obtain
average velocities of the train over smaller and smaller time
intervals.
• The smaller the time interval, the closer the average velocity
becomes to the instantaneous velocity of the train at t = 2, as
the table below demonstrates:
t 2.5 2.1 2.01 2.001 2.0001
Average Velocity 18 16.4 16.04 16.004 16.0004

• The closer t gets to 2, the closer the average velocity gets to

16 feet/second.
• Thus, the instantaneous velocity at t = 2 seems to be
16 feet/second.

Lecture 2 Calculus
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Definition of Limits
• Consider function g, which gives the average velocity of the
train:
( 𝒕 ¿¿ 𝟐− 𝟒)
𝒈 ( 𝒕 )=𝟒 ¿
𝒕 −𝟐
• Suppose we want to find the value that g(t) approaches
as t approaches 2.
– We take values of t approaching 2 from the right (as we did before),
and we find that g(t) approaches 16:

t 2.5 2.1 2.01 2.001 2.0001

g(t) 18 16.4 16.04 16.004 16.0004

– Similarly, we take values of t approaching 2 from the left, and we find

that g(t) also approaches 16:
t 1.5 1.9 1.99 1.999 1.9999
g(t) 14 15.6 15.96 15.996 15.9996

Lecture 2 Calculus
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Definition of Limits
• We have found that as t approaches 2 from either side, g(t)
approaches 16.
• In this situation, we say that the limit of g(t) as t approaches 2
is 16.
• This is written as:
(𝒕 ¿ ¿ 𝟐 − 𝟒 )
lim 𝒈 ( 𝒕)= lim 𝟒 =𝟏𝟔 ¿
𝒕 →𝟐 𝒕 →𝟐 𝒕 −𝟐

• Observe that t = 2 is not in the domain of g(t) .

• But this does not matter, since t = 2 does not play any role in
computing this limit.

Lecture 2 Calculus
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Limit of a function
• Limit (an informal view)

• The function f has a limit L as x approaches a, written:

if the value of f(x) can be made as close to the number L as

we please by taking x values sufficiently close to (but not
equal to) a.

Lecture 2 Calculus
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Limit of a function: Examples
• Let 𝒇 ( 𝒙 )= 𝒙𝟑. Evaluate 𝒙lim
→𝟐
𝒇 (𝒙 )

• Solution:
You can see in the graph
that f(x) can be as close
f(x) = x3
to 8 as we please by taking y

x sufficiently close to 2. 8
6
4
• Therefore, 2
𝟑
lim 𝒇 ( 𝒙 )= lim 𝒙 =𝟖
𝒙 →𝟐 𝒙→𝟐
–2 x
–2 –1 1 2 3

Lecture 2 Calculus
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Limit of a function: Examples

{
• Let 𝒇 ( 𝒙 )= 𝒙𝟏+𝟐 𝒊𝒇 𝒙 ≠ 𝟏
𝒊𝒇 𝒙 =𝟏 .Evaluate
lim 𝒇 (𝒙 )
𝒙 →𝟏

• Solution:
You can see in the graph
that f(x) can be as close y
f(x)
to 3 as we please by taking 5
x sufficiently close to 1. 3

1
• Therefore,
lim 𝒇 ( 𝒙 )=𝟑 x
𝒙 →𝟏 –2 –1 1 2 3

Lecture 2 Calculus
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Limit of a function: Examples
𝟏 lim 𝒇 (𝒙 )
• Let 𝒇 ( 𝒙 )=
𝒙
.Evaluate
𝟐 𝒙 →𝟎

Solution:
The graph shows us that y
as x approaches 0 from
either side, f(x) increases 𝟏
𝒇 ( 𝒙 )=
without bound and thus 𝒙
𝟐

does not approach any

specific real number.
x
–2 –1 1 2

Thus, the limit of f(x)

does not exist as x approaches 0.

Lecture 2 Calculus
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PROPERTIES OF LIMITS

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Theorem 1 : Properties of Limit

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Theorem 2 : Properties of Limits

Suppose and𝒙lim→𝒂
𝒇 ( 𝒙 )=𝑳 lim 𝒈( 𝒙 )=𝑴
𝒙→𝒂
Then,
1.
[ ]
𝒓 𝒓
lim [ 𝒇 ( 𝒙 ) ] = lim 𝒇 ( 𝒙 ) = 𝑳
𝒓

𝒙→𝒂 𝒙 →𝒂

lim 𝒄𝒇 ( 𝒙 )= 𝒄 lim 𝒇 ( 𝒙 )=𝒄𝑳

𝒙→𝒂 𝒙 →𝒂

lim [ 𝒇 ( 𝒙) ± 𝒈 ( 𝒙 ) ] = lim 𝒇 ( 𝒙 ) ± lim 𝒈( 𝒙 )=𝑳 ± 𝑴

𝒙→𝒂 𝒙→𝒂 𝒙 →𝒂

[ ][
lim [ 𝒇 ( 𝒙 ) 𝒈( 𝒙) ] = lim 𝒇 ( 𝒙) lim 𝒈 ( 𝒙) =𝑳𝑴
𝒙→𝒂 𝒙 →𝒂 𝒙→𝒂 ]
lim 𝒇 ( 𝒙 )
𝒇 ( 𝒙) 𝒙 → 𝒂 𝑳
2. lim = = ( 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒗𝒊𝒅𝒆𝒅 𝒕𝒉𝒂𝒕 𝑴 ≠𝟎)
𝒙 → 𝒂 𝒈 ( 𝒙) lim 𝒈 ( 𝒙 ) 𝑴
𝒙→𝒂

Lecture 2 Calculus
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Theorem 1 and 2: Examples
• Use theorem 1 to evaluate the following limits:
lim 𝒙 𝟑 lim 𝟓 𝒙 𝟑/ 𝟐 lim (𝟓 𝒙¿¿𝟒−𝟐)¿
𝒙 →𝟐 𝒙→𝟒 𝒙 →𝟏

𝟐 𝒙𝟐 +𝟏
lim 𝟐 𝒙
𝒙 →𝟑
𝟑
√𝒙 𝟐
+𝟕 lim
𝒙+𝟏
𝒙 →𝟐

Lecture 2 Calculus
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Theorem 1 and 2: Examples
• Use theorem 1 to evaluate the following limits:
[ ]
𝟑 𝟑 𝟑
lim 𝒙 = lim 𝒙 =𝟐 =𝟖
𝒙 →𝟐 𝒙 →𝟐

[ ]
𝟑/ 𝟐 𝟑 /𝟐 𝟑/ 𝟐
lim 𝟓 𝒙 =𝟓 lim 𝒙 =𝟓 ( 𝟒 ) =𝟒𝟎
𝒙→𝟒 𝒙 →𝟒

𝟒 𝟒
lim (𝟓 𝒙¿¿ 𝟒 − 𝟐)= lim 𝟓 𝒙 − lim 𝟐=𝟓 ( 𝟏 ) − 𝟐=𝟑 ¿
𝒙 →𝟏 𝒙→𝟏 𝒙 →𝟏

√ 𝒙 𝟐+𝟕=[ 𝒙lim ] [ 𝒙 →𝟑 ]
𝟐 𝒙 lim √ 𝒙 +𝟕 =𝟐 ( 𝟑 ) √ 𝟑 +𝟕=𝟐𝟏𝟔
𝟑 𝟑 𝟐 𝟑 𝟐
lim 𝟐 𝒙
𝒙 →𝟑 →𝟑

𝟐 lim (𝟐 𝒙 𝟐 +𝟏) 𝟐
𝟐 𝒙 +𝟏 𝒙 → 𝟐 𝟐 ( 𝟐 ) +𝟏
lim = = =𝟑
𝒙 →𝟐 𝒙 +𝟏 lim ( 𝒙 +𝟏) 𝟐+𝟏
𝒙 →𝟐

Lecture 2 Calculus
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INDETERMINATE FORM

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Indeterminate form
(𝒙¿¿𝟐−𝟒)
• Consider lim 𝟒 ¿
𝒙→𝟐 𝒙 −𝟐
which we evaluated earlier for the train example by looking at
values for x near x = 2.
• If we attempt to evaluate this expression by applying
Theorem 1- properties 5, we get:

lim 𝟒( 𝒙 𝟐 − 𝟒)
( 𝒙 ¿¿ 𝟐 −𝟒) 𝒙 → 𝟐 𝟎
lim 𝟒 = = ¿
𝒙 →𝟐 𝒙 −𝟐 lim ( 𝒙 − 𝟐) 𝟎
𝒙→𝟐

• In this case we say that the limit of the quotient f(x)/g(x) as x

approaches 2 has the indeterminate form 0/0.
• This expression does not provide us with a solution to our
problem.

Lecture 2 Calculus
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Indeterminate form
• Strategy for Evaluating Indeterminate Forms

1. Replace the given function with an appropriate one that

takes on the same values as the original function
everywhere except at x = a.

2. Evaluate the limit of this function as x approaches a.

• Consider lim 𝟒 (𝒙¿¿𝟐−𝟒) ¿ we have an indeterminate form 0/0.

𝒙→𝟐 𝒙 −𝟐
𝟒( 𝒙 𝟐 −𝟒) 𝟒 ( 𝒙 −𝟐)( 𝒙 +𝟐)
= =𝟒 ( 𝒙 +𝟐 ) ∀ 𝒙 ≠𝟐
• Thus,𝒙 −𝟐 𝒙−𝟐
(𝒙¿¿𝟐−𝟒)
lim 𝟒 = lim 𝟒 ( 𝒙+𝟐 )=𝟏𝟔¿
𝒙 →𝟐 𝒙 −𝟐 𝒙→𝟐

Lecture 2 Calculus
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Indeterminate form
• Notice in the graphs below that the two functions yield the
same graphs, except for the value x = 2:

(𝒙¿¿𝟐−𝟒)
y 𝒇 ( 𝒙 )=𝟒 ¿ y 𝒈 ( 𝒙 ) =𝟒(𝒙 +𝟐)
𝒙 −𝟐
20 20
16 16
12 12
8 8
4 4

x x
–3 –2 –1 1 2 3 –3 –2 –1 1 2 3

Lecture 2 Calculus
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Indeterminate form : Example
• Consider lim
√ 𝟏+𝒉− 𝟏
𝒉→𝟎 𝒉
we have an indeterminate form 0/0.
• With we can rewrite:

√𝟏+𝒉−𝟏= √𝟏+𝒉−𝟏 . √𝟏+𝒉+𝟏 = 𝟏

𝒉 𝒉 √𝟏+𝒉+𝟏 √𝟏+𝒉+𝟏

• Thus,

lim
√ 𝟏+𝒉− 𝟏 = lim 𝟏 𝟏
=¿ ¿
𝒉 →𝟎 𝒉 𝒉→ 𝟎 √𝟏+ 𝒉+𝟏 𝟐

Lecture 2 Calculus
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LIMIT AT INFINITY

Lecture 2 Calculus
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Limit at infinity
• There are occasions when we want to know whether f(x)
approaches a unique number as x increases without bound.
• In the graph below, as x increases without bound, f(x)
approaches the number 400.
• We call the line y = 400
a horizontal asymptote. y
• In this case, we can say 𝒇 (𝒙)
400
that
lim 𝒇 (𝒙 )=𝟒𝟎𝟎 300
𝒙→∞
200
and we call this a limit
of a function at infinity. 100

x
10 20 30 40 50 60

Lecture 2 Calculus
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Limit at infinity : Example
𝟐 𝒙𝟐
• Consider 𝒇 ( 𝒙 )= 𝟐
𝟏+ 𝒙

Determine what happens to f(x) as x gets larger and larger.

• Solution:
• We can pick a sequence of values of x and substitute them in
the function to obtain the following values:
x 1 2 5 10 100 1000
f(x) 1 1.6 1.92 1.98 1.9998 1.999998

• As x gets larger and larger, f(x) gets closer and closer to 2.

• Thus,
𝟐 𝒙𝟐
lim 𝟐
=𝟐
𝒙 → ∞ 𝟏+ 𝒙

Lecture 2 Calculus
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Limit at infinity: Definition (An informal view)

• The function f has the limit L as x increases without

bound (as x approaches infinity), written
lim 𝒇 ( 𝒙 )= 𝑳
𝒙 → ∞

if f(x) can be made arbitrarily close to L by taking x large

enough.
• Similarly, the function f has the limit M as x decreases
without bound (as x approaches negative infinity),
written
lim 𝒇 ( 𝒙 )= 𝑴
𝒙 →− ∞

if f(x) can be made arbitrarily close to M by taking x

large enough in absolute value.

Lecture 2 Calculus
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Limit at infinity : Example
• Consider 𝒇 ( 𝒙 )= {
− 𝟏 𝒊𝒇 𝒙 <𝟎
𝟏 𝒊𝒇 𝒙 ≥ 𝟎

Evaluate 𝒙lim 𝒇 ( 𝒙 ) and lim 𝒇 ( 𝒙 )

→∞ 𝒙 →− ∞

• Solution:
The graph of f(x) shows that y

lim 𝒇 ( 𝒙 )=𝟏 𝒇 (𝒙)

𝒙→∞ 1
lim 𝒇 ( 𝒙 )=− 𝟏
𝒙 →− ∞ x
–3 3
–1

Lecture 2 Calculus
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Limit at infinity : Example
𝟏
• Consider 𝒇 ( 𝒙 )= 𝟐
𝒙
Evaluate 𝒙lim 𝒇 ( 𝒙 ) and lim 𝒇 ( 𝒙 )
→∞ 𝒙 →− ∞

• Solution:
The graph of f(x) shows that y
lim 𝒇 ( 𝒙 )=𝟎
𝟏
𝒙→∞
𝒇 ( 𝒙 )=
lim 𝒇 ( 𝒙 )=𝟎 𝒙𝟐
𝒙 →− ∞

x
–3 –2 –1 1 2 3

Lecture 2 Calculus
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Limit at infinity properties – Theorem 3

• All properties of limits listed in Theorem 1 are valid when

a is replaced by or .
• In addition, we have the following properties for limits to
infinity:

𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
𝑭𝒐𝒓 𝒂𝒍𝒍 𝒏>𝟎 , lim 𝒏
=𝟎 𝒂𝒏𝒅 lim 𝒏
=𝟎 , 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒗𝒊𝒅𝒆𝒅 𝒕𝒉𝒂𝒕 𝒏
𝒊𝒔 𝒅𝒆𝒇𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒅
𝒙→∞ 𝒙 𝒙 →− ∞ 𝒙 𝒙

Lecture 2 Calculus
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Limit at infinity : Example
• Evaluate 𝒙 𝟐 − 𝒙 +𝟑
lim 𝟑
𝒙 → ∞ 𝟐 𝒙 +𝟏

Solution:
The limits of both the numerator and denominator do not exist
as x approaches infinity, so property 5 is not applicable.
We can find the solution instead by dividing numerator and
denominator by x3:
𝟏 𝟏 𝟑
𝟐 𝟑 − +
𝟐
𝒙 − 𝒙 +𝟑 ( 𝒙 − 𝒙 +𝟑)/ 𝒙 𝒙 𝒙
𝟐
𝒙
𝟑
𝟎 −𝟎+𝟎
lim = lim = lim = =𝟎
𝟑
𝒙 → ∞ 𝟐 𝒙 +𝟏
𝟑
𝒙 → ∞ (𝟐 𝒙 +𝟑)/ 𝒙
𝟑
𝒙 →∞ 𝟑 𝟐+𝟎
𝟐+ 𝟑
𝒙

Lecture 2 Calculus
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Limit at infinity : Example
• Evaluate 𝟑 𝒙𝟐 +𝟖 𝒙 −𝟒
lim 𝟐
𝒙 → ∞ 𝟐 𝒙 +𝟒 𝒙 − 𝟓

Solution:
The limits of both the numerator and denominator do not exist
as x approaches infinity, so property 5 is not applicable.
We can find the solution instead by dividing numerator and
denominator by x2:
𝟖 𝟒
𝟐 𝟐 𝟑+
−
𝟐
𝟑 𝒙 +𝟖 𝒙 −𝟒 (𝟑 𝒙 +𝟖 𝒙 −𝟒)/ 𝒙 𝒙 𝒙
𝟐
𝟑+ 𝟎− 𝟎 𝟑
lim = lim = lim = =
𝟐
𝒙 → ∞ 𝟐 𝒙 +𝟒 𝒙 − 𝟓
𝟐
𝒙 → ∞ (𝟐 𝒙 + 𝟒 𝒙 −𝟓)/ 𝒙
𝟐
𝒙→∞ 𝟒 𝟓 𝟐+ 𝟎− 𝟎 𝟐
𝟐+ −
𝒙 𝒙𝟐

Lecture 2 Calculus
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Limit at infinity : Example
• Evaluate 𝟐 𝒙 𝟑 −𝟑 𝒙 𝟐 +𝟏
lim 𝟐
𝒙→∞ 𝒙 +𝟐 𝒙 + 𝟒
Solution:
The limits of both the numerator and denominator do not exist
as x approaches infinity, so property 5 is not applicable.
But dividing numerator and denominator by x2 does not help in
this case
𝟏
𝟑 𝟐 𝟐 𝟐 𝒙 − 𝟑+
𝟑 𝟐
𝟐 𝒙 − 𝟑 𝒙 +𝟏 (𝟐 𝒙 − 𝟑 𝒙 +𝟏)/ 𝒙 𝒙
𝟐
lim = lim = lim
𝒙→∞
𝟐
𝒙 +𝟐 𝒙 + 𝟒 𝒙→∞
𝟐
( 𝒙 +𝟐 𝒙 + 𝟒)/ 𝒙
𝟐
𝒙→∞ 𝟐 𝟒
𝟏+ + 𝟐
𝒙 𝒙
In other words, the limit does not exist.
We indicate this by writing
𝟐 𝒙𝟑 −𝟑 𝒙𝟐 +𝟏
lim 𝟐
=∞
𝒙→∞ 𝒙 +𝟐 𝒙+ 𝟒
Lecture 2 Calculus
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ONE-SIDED LIMIT

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One-sided Limits
• Consider 𝒇 ( 𝒙 )= {
𝒙 −𝟏 𝒊𝒇 𝒙<𝟎
𝒙 +𝟏 𝒊𝒇 𝒙 ≥ 𝟎
y

The graph of f(x) shows that 𝒇 (𝒙)

f does not have a limit as
x approaches zero, because 1

approaching from each side x

–1 1
results in different values. –1

Lecture 2 Calculus
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One-sided Limits
• Consider 𝒇 ( 𝒙 )= {
𝒙 −𝟏 𝒊𝒇 𝒙<𝟎
𝒙 +𝟏 𝒊𝒇 𝒙 ≥ 𝟎
y

If we restrict x to be greater than zero 𝒇 (𝒙)

(to the right of zero), we see that
f(x) approaches 1 as close to as 1

we please as x approaches 0. x
–1 1
–1
In this case we say that the
right-hand limit of f as
x approaches 0 is 1, written
lim ¿
+¿
𝒙 →𝟎 𝒇 ( 𝒙 ) =𝟏 ¿

Lecture 2 Calculus
The University of New South Wales Page 35
One-sided Limits
• Consider 𝒇 ( 𝒙 )= {
𝒙 −𝟏 𝒊𝒇 𝒙<𝟎
𝒙 +𝟏 𝒊𝒇 𝒙 ≥ 𝟎
y

If we restrict x to be less than zero 𝒇 (𝒙)

(to the left of zero), we see that
f(x) approaches -1 as close to as 1

we please as x approaches 0. x
–1 1
–1
In this case we say that the
left-hand limit of f as
x approaches 0 is -1, written

lim 𝒇 ( 𝒙 ) =−𝟏
−
𝒙 →𝟎

Lecture 2 Calculus
The University of New South Wales Page 36
One-sided Limits: Definition

• The function f has the right-hand limit L as x approaches

from the right, written
lim
+ ¿
¿
𝒙 → 𝒂 𝒇 ( 𝒙 )= 𝑳 ¿

if the values of f(x) can be made as close to L as we

please by taking x sufficiently close to (but not equal to)
a and to the right of a.
• Similarly, the function f has the left-hand limit M as x
approaches from the left, written
lim 𝒇 ( 𝒙 )= 𝑴
−
𝒙 → 𝒂

if the values of f(x) can be made as close to M as we

please by taking x sufficiently close to (but not equal to)
a and to the left of a.

Lecture 2 Calculus
The University of New South Wales Page 37
One-sided Limits: Theorem 3

• The connection between one-side limits and the

two-sided limit defined earlier is given by the
following theorem.

• Let f be a function that is defined for all values of x close

to x = a with the possible exception of a itself. Then
lim 𝒇 ( 𝒙 )=𝑳 if and only if lim ¿
+¿
𝒙 →𝒂 𝒇 ( 𝒙 )= lim 𝒇 ( 𝒙 ) =¿ 𝑳 ¿ ¿
𝒙→𝒂 𝒙 →𝒂
−

Lecture 2 Calculus
The University of New South Wales Page 38
One-sided Limits : Examples
• Consider 𝒇 ( 𝒙 )= − 𝒙 𝒊𝒇 𝒙 ≤ 𝟎
√ 𝒙 𝒊𝒇 𝒙 >𝟎 {
• Prove that lim 𝒇 ( 𝒙 ) exists by studying the one-sided
𝒙 →𝟎
limits of f as x approaches 0

y
Solution:
For , we find
lim ¿ 2 𝒇 (𝒙)
+¿
𝒙 →𝟎 𝒇 ( 𝒙 ) =𝟎 ¿
For , we find 1
lim 𝒇 ( 𝒙 ) =𝟎 x
𝒙 →𝟎
−
–2 –1 1 2
Thus (based on theorem 3),
lim 𝒇 ( 𝒙 )=𝟎
𝒙 →𝟎

Lecture 2 Calculus
The University of New South Wales Page 39
One-sided Limits : Examples
• Consider 𝒈 ( 𝒙 ) =
− 𝟏 𝒊𝒇 𝒙 <𝟎
𝟏 𝒊𝒇 𝒙 ≥ 𝟎{
• Prove that lim 𝒈 ( 𝒙 ) does not exist
𝒙 →𝟎

y
Solution:
For , we find
lim ¿ 𝒈(𝒙)
+¿
𝒙 →𝟎 𝒈 ( 𝒙 ) =𝟏 ¿ 1
For , we find
lim 𝒈 ( 𝒙 )=−𝟏 x
−
𝒙 →𝟎

–1
Thus (based on theorem 3),
lim 𝒈 ( 𝒙 )does not exist
𝒙 →𝟎

Lecture 2 Calculus
The University of New South Wales Page 40
CONTINUITY OF A
FUNCTION

Lecture 2 Calculus
The University of New South Wales Page 41
Continuous functions
• Loosely speaking, a function is continuous at a given point if
its graph at that point has no holes, gaps, jumps, or breaks.
• Consider, for example, the graph of f
y

x
a

• This function is discontinuous at the following points:

– At x = a, f is not defined (x = a is not in the domain of f ).

Lecture 2 Calculus
The University of New South Wales Page 42
Continuous functions
• Loosely speaking, a function is continuous at a given point if
its graph at that point has no holes, gaps, jumps, or breaks.
• Consider, for example, the graph of f
y

x
a b

• This function is discontinuous at the following points:

– At x = b, f(b) is not equal to the limit of f(x) as x approaches b

Lecture 2 Calculus
The University of New South Wales Page 43
Continuous functions
• Loosely speaking, a function is continuous at a given point if
its graph at that point has no holes, gaps, jumps, or breaks.
• Consider, for example, the graph of f
y

x
a b c

• This function is discontinuous at the following points:

– At x = c, the function does not have a limit, since the left-hand
and the right-hand limits are not equal

Lecture 2 Calculus
The University of New South Wales Page 44
Continuous functions
• Loosely speaking, a function is continuous at a given point if
its graph at that point has no holes, gaps, jumps, or breaks.
• Consider, for example, the graph of f
y

x
a b c d

• This function is discontinuous at the following points:

– At x = d, the function does not have a limit, resulting a break in
the graph

Lecture 2 Calculus
The University of New South Wales Page 45
Continuity of a function at a point

• A function f is continuous at a point x=a if the following

conditions are satisfied:
1. f(a) is defined

lim 𝒇 ( 𝒙
2. )
exists
𝒙→𝒂

3. 𝒙lim 𝒇 ( 𝒙 )= 𝒇 ( 𝒂)
→𝒂

• If f is not continuous at x = a, then f is said to be

discontinuous at x = a.
• Also, f is continuous on an interval if f is continuous at
every number in the interval.

Lecture 2 Calculus
The University of New South Wales Page 46
Continuity of a function: Example
• Find the values of x for which the function is continuous?
𝒇 ( 𝒙 )= 𝒙 +𝟐 {
𝒉 ( 𝒙 )= 𝒙 +𝟐 𝒊𝒇 𝒙 ≠ 𝟐
𝟏 𝒊𝒇 𝒙 =𝟐

𝒈 ( 𝒙)=
𝒙𝟐− 𝟒 𝒌 ( 𝒙 )= {− 𝟏 𝒊𝒇 𝒙 <𝟎
𝒙 −𝟐 𝟏 𝒊𝒇 𝒙 ≥ 𝟎

{
− 𝟏 𝒊𝒇 𝒙 ≤ 𝟎
𝒕 ( 𝒙 )= 𝟏
𝒊𝒇 𝒙 >𝟎
𝒙

Lecture 2 Calculus
The University of New South Wales Page 47
Continuity of a function: Example
• Solution: 𝒙𝟐− 𝟒
𝒈 ( 𝒙)=
y 𝒇 ( 𝒙 )= 𝒙 +𝟐 y 𝒙 −𝟐
5 5
4 4
3 3
2 2
1 1

x x
– 2 –1 1 2 – 2 –1 1 2

The function f is continuous The function g is discontinuous

everywhere because the three at x=2 because g is not defined
conditions for continuity are at that point. g is continuous
satisfied for all values of x. everywhere else.

Lecture 2 Calculus
The University of New South Wales Page 48
Continuity of a function: Example
• Solution:
y
y 𝒚=𝒉(𝒙)
5
4
𝒚 = 𝒌( 𝒙 )
1
3
2 x
1
–1
x
– 2 –1 1 2

The function h is discontinuous The function k is discontinuous

at x=2 because at x=0 because
𝒉 ( 𝟐 )=𝟏 ≠ lim 𝒉 ( 𝒙 )=𝟒 lim 𝒌 ( 𝒙 does
) not exist
𝒙 →𝟐 𝒙 →𝟎

h is continuous everywhere k is continuous everywhere

else. else.
Lecture 2 Calculus
The University of New South Wales Page 49
Continuity of a function: Example
• Solution: y

𝒚=𝒕(𝒙)

–1

The function t is discontinuous at x=0 because

lim 𝒕 ( 𝒙 ) does not exist. t is continuous everywhere else.

𝒙 →𝟎

Lecture 2 Calculus
The University of New South Wales Page 50
Properties of Continuous Function

1. The constant function f(x) = c is continuous

everywhere.
2. The identity function f(x) = x is continuous everywhere.

If f and g are continuous at x = a, then

𝒏
3. [ 𝒇 ( 𝒙) ] , where n is a real number, is continuous at
x = a whenever it is defined at that number.
4. f ± g is continuous at x = a.
5. fg is continuous at x = a.
6. f /g is continuous at g(a) ≠ 0.

Lecture 2 Calculus
The University of New South Wales Page 51
Properties of Continuous Function
• Using these properties, we can obtain the following
additional properties.

1. A polynomial function y = P(x) is continuous at every

value of x.
2. A rational function R(x) = p(x)/q(x) is continuous at every
value of x where q(x) ≠ 0.

Lecture 2 Calculus
The University of New South Wales Page 52
Continuity of a function: Example
• Find the values of x for which the function is continuous?
𝒇 ( 𝒙 )=𝟑 𝒙 𝟑+𝟐 𝒙 𝟐 − 𝒙+𝟏𝟎
𝟖𝒙 𝟏𝟎 𝟐
−𝟒 𝒙 +𝟏 𝟒 𝒙 𝟑 − 𝟑 𝒙 𝟐 +𝟏
𝒈 ( 𝒙)= 𝒉 ( 𝒙 )=
𝟐
𝒙 +𝟏 𝒙 𝟐 −𝟑 𝒙 +𝟐

Lecture 2 Calculus
The University of New South Wales Page 53
Continuity of a function: Example
• Solution:
• f(x) is a polynomial function of degree 3, so f(x) is continuous
for all values of x.

• g(x) is a rational function. Observe that the denominator of g

is never equal to zero. Therefore, we conclude that g(x) is
continuous for all values of x.

• h(x) is a rational function. In this case, however, the

denominator of h is equal to zero at x = 1 and x = 2, which we
can see by factoring. Therefore, we conclude that h(x) is
continuous everywhere except at x = 1 and x = 2.

Lecture 2 Calculus
The University of New South Wales Page 54
Intermediate value theorem (Theorem 4)
• Let’s look again at the train example.
• Recall that the position of the train is a function of
time given by f(t) = 4t2 for 0  t  30. f(t) is
continuous for all values of t.
y
𝒚 = 𝒇 ( 𝒕 ) =𝟒 𝒕 𝟐
s2

s3
s1
t
t1 t3 t2
• The train cannot vanish at any instant of time and cannot skip
portions of track and reappear elsewhere.

Lecture 2 Calculus
The University of New South Wales Page 55
Intermediate value theorem (Theorem 4)
• Recall that the position of the maglev is a function of
time given by f(t) = 4t2 for 0  t  30.
y
𝒚 = 𝒇 ( 𝒕 ) =𝟒 𝒕 𝟐
s2

s3
s1
t
t1 t3 t2
• Suppose the position of the train is s1 at some time t1 and its
position is s2 at some time t2.
• Then, if s3 is any number between s1 and s2, there must be
at least one t3 between t1 and t2 giving the time at which the
train is at s3 (f(t3) = s3).

Lecture 2 Calculus
The University of New South Wales Page 56
Intermediate value theorem (Theorem 4)
• The Train example carries the gist of the intermediate value
theorem:

If f is a continuous function on a closed interval [a, b] and M

is any number between f(a) and f(b), then there is at least
one number c in [a, b] such that f(c) = M.

y y
𝒚= 𝒇 ( 𝒙 )
f(b) f(b) 𝒚= 𝒇 ( 𝒙 )

M M
f(a) f(a)

x a c1 b x
a c b c2 c3

Lecture 2 Calculus
The University of New South Wales Page 57
Existence of Zeros of a Continuous Function (Theorem 5)
• A special case of this theorem is when a continuous function
crosses the x axis.

If f is a continuous function on a closed interval [a, b], and if

f(a) and f(b) have opposite signs, then there is at least one
solution of the equation f(x) = 0 in the interval (a, b).

y 𝒚= 𝒇 ( 𝒙 ) y
f(b) f(b)
𝒚= 𝒇 ( 𝒙 )

x a c1 c2 b x
a c b c3

f(a)
f(a)

Lecture 2 Calculus
The University of New South Wales Page 58
Theorem 5 : Example
• Let 𝒇 ( 𝒙 )= 𝒙 𝟑 + 𝒙 +𝟏

Prove that the equation f(x)=0 has at least one solution in the
interval (-1,1)

Lecture 2 Calculus
The University of New South Wales Page 59
Theorem 5 : Example
• Let 𝒇 ( 𝒙 )= 𝒙 𝟑 + 𝒙 +𝟏
Prove that the equation f(x)=0 has at least one solution in the
interval (-1,1)

Solution:
• The function f is a polynomial function of degree 3 and is
therefore continuous everywhere.
• We compute f(-1) and f(1):
𝒇 ( − 𝟏 )=− 𝟏𝟑 −𝟏+𝟏=− 𝟏
𝒇 ( 𝟏 )=𝟏𝟑 +𝟏+𝟏=𝟑
• Since f (–1) and f (1) have opposite signs, Theorem 5 tells us
that the equation f(x)=0 must have at least one solution in the
interval (-1,1).

Lecture 2 Calculus
The University of New South Wales Page 60
Summary
• Describe the behavior of functions as they approach certain
x-values.
• Definition of limit of a function including one-sided and two-
sided limits.
• Properties of limit and evaluating the limit of a function
graphically, numerically and algebraically.
• Indeterminate limit and limit at infinity.
• Describe the connection between limits and continuity.

Lecture 2 Calculus
The University of New South Wales Page 61
Homework
• Problem Set :
– Read sections 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 1.5 in Chapter 1. Test
with some exercises at the end of each section
(students should do as much as possible)
– Read Study guide for topic 2.
– All exercises in textbook page 128-129 (chapter 1
review exercise) – except the CAS exercises.
– Important exercises in chapter 1 review
(page128): 5 -> 20, 26, 27, 31, 32, 35, 36, 37
References
[1] H. Anton, I. Bivens, S. Davis, Calculus - Early Transcendentals, 9th Ed.,
MA, USA: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2009.

Lecture 2 Calculus
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