INTRODUCTION

1
 What Is Mobile Computing?
• What is computing?
Operation of computers (according to oxfords
advance learner’s dictionary)
• What is the mobile?
That someone /something can move or be moved
easily and quickly from place to place
• What is mobile computing?
Users with portable computers still have network
connections while they move

2
What Is Mobile Computing? (Cont.)
• A simple definition could be:
Mobile Computing is using a computer (of one kind or
another) while on the move
• Another definition could be:
Mobile Computing is when a (work) process is moved from a
normal fixed position to a more dynamic position.
• A third definition could be:
Mobile Computing is when a work process is carried out
somewhere where it was not previously possible.

3
What Is Mobile Computing? (Cont.)
• Mobile Computing is an umbrella term used to
describe technologies that enable people to access
network services anyplace, anytime, and anywhere.

4
 Why Go Mobile?
• Enable anywhere/anytime connectivity
• Bring computer communications to areas without
pre-existing infrastructure
• Enable mobility
• Enable new applications
• An exciting new research area

5
 Types of Wireless Devices
• Laptops
• Palmtops
• PDAs
• Cell phones
• Pagers
• Sensors

6
 Mobile Objects
• A mobile object is some
code that carries a state

7
 Mobile Objects (Cont.)
• A mobile object is some
code that carries a state
• that lives on a host

8
 Mobile Objects (Cont.)
• A mobile object is some
code that carries a state
• Lives in a host
• That visits places

9
 Mobile Objects (Cont.)
• A mobile object is some
code that carries a state
• Lives in a host
• That visits places
• which is let in when
trusted

10
 Mobile Objects (Cont.)
• A mobile object is some
code that carries a state
• Lives in a host
• That visits places
• which is let in when
trusted
• and barred when
untrusted

11
 Mobile Objects (Cont.)
• A mobile object is some
code that carries a state
• Lives in a host
• That visits places
• which is let in when trusted
• and barred when untrusted
• and will refuse to go to
untrustworthy places

12
 Mobile Objects (Cont.)
• Mobile objects can talk
to their friends

13
 Mobile Objects (Cont.)
• Mobile objects can talk
to their friends
• but only by co-operation
of the hosts

14
 Mobile Computing Functions
• User Mobility
• Network Mobility
• Bearer Mobility
• Device Mobility
• Session Mobility
• Agent Mobility
• Host Mobility

15
Evocation
Wireless Transmission
Frequency
 Frequency

• Frequency is the number of occurrences of a

repeating event per unit of time.
F=1/T
Wavelength
 Wavelength
Wavelength can be defined as the distance
between two successive crests or troughs of a
wave. It is measured in the direction of the
wave.

Wavelength of the wave = Speed of the wave/

Frequency
Example: If the speed of a wave is 600m per
second and the frequency of the waves is 30
waves per sec, then the wavelength will be
equal to: ????
Wireless Transmission
• It is a unguided transmission
• It is carried through radiated electromagnetic
energy.
• electromagnetic energy flows in free space.
 Wireless Transmission(Cont.)
• Radiated energy is of frequency in MHz or GHz
spectrum range
• Spectrum means a set of frequencies in a
range.
(E.g) From red to violet color frequencies in
range of visible light.
 Signal propagation frequencies
• Electrical signal transmitted by converting into
electromagnetic radiation.
• These radiations are transmitted via
antennae.
• These are various frequency bands.
Classical formula for frequency is f=c/λ
c=velocity of signal propagation in m/s
C=300*106 λ in meters frequency in MHz
 Antennae
• Devices that transmit and receive
electromagnetic radiation.
• Mostly narrow frequency range
• Should be properly tuned
• Types of antennae based on frequency range.
 Dipole antennae
A dipole antenna is the simplest type of radio antenna,
consisting of a conductive wire rod that is half the length of the
maximum wavelength the antenna is to generate. This wire rod
is split in the middle, and the two sections are separated by an
insulator.
A dipole antenna is to be mounted on a
conducting surface. Calculate the length of the
required antenna for transmitting a GSM
signal of frequency 900MHz.
EVOCATION
WPAN and WLAN
 WPAN
• Wireless personal area network.
• It enables wireless communication between
devices that are at short distance from each
other.
(E.g) Communication between your Pc to
Mobile using Bluetooth or infrared etc.
 WLAN
• Wireless Local Area Network
• wireless computer network that links two or
more devices using wireless communication to
form a local area network 
• (E.g) WiFi
• limited area such as a home, school, computer
laboratory, campus, office building etc
 Mobile Computing Architecture
• It defines various layer between user application
interface, devices and network hardware.

• Well defined architecture should be

Systematic computation
Access data
Software object
Mobile Computing Architecture
Layers

• User Interface / Presentation Tier:

User facing device handling and
rendering.
• Process Management / Application
Tier: Business logic and rules are
executed there.
• Database Management / Data Tier:
Database access and management.
Advantages:
• It provides increased performance,
flexibility, maintainability,
reusability, and scalability.
• It hides complexity of distributed
processing from the user.
• The layer of applications that
run on the client device and
offer all the user interfaces.
• It is responsible for presenting
information to the end-user.
• Users receive information
through: screens, speakers,
vibration.
• Users send information
through: keyboards, pens,
touch screens.
• It includes web browsers, WAP
browsers, customized client
programs.
• It should be device-
independent.
Tier 2
• Is the engine of a ubiquitous
application.
• It performs business logic;
processing user input,
obtaining data, making
decisions
• It includes technologies like
Java, JSP, .Net services, PHP.
• Decisions on rendering,
network management,
security, data store access,
need for different middleware
software.
Tier 3

• It is used to store data

needed by the application
and act as a repository for
both temporary and
permanent data.
• Data can be stored in any
form, ex: relational DB, text
files.
Qn.
Provide some positive and negative example
that indicate the impact of Mobile
Computing in our society.
Develop your own answer to this question
and discuss them with your fellow friends.
EVOCATION
MAC
 MULTIPLEXING
• How several users can share a medium with
minimum or no interferences.
(E.G) National Highway

• Task is assigning space, time, frequency and code

• Assignment of medium to users (traffic

regulation)

Types
SDM, FDM,TDM,CDM
 SDM
• Space division
multiplexing
• Channel k1 to k3
mapped into the 3
spaces s1,s2,s3.
• Prevent interference
and overlapping
 SDM
• The space between the
interference range is
called guard space.
• Highway example
Problem
• 2 or more channel
establish with the same
space(city).
• Go for TDM,FDM,CDM
 FDM
• Frequency division
multiplexing
• Subdivided the frequency
dimension into several
non overlapping
frequency bands.
• Each channel ki is now
allotted its own
frequency.
 FDM
• Guard space required
avoid interferences.
• More radio station in
same region.
• Receiver tune sender
Problem
• Waste of bandwidth in
traffic distribution.
• Guard space.
 TDM
• Time division
multiplexing
• ki given whole
bandwidth for a certain
amount of time.
• All senders using same
frequency but diff time.
• Guard space –
separation of time.
 TDM
Problem
• Synchronization is
required.
• Coordination between
all senders.
• Interferences
 CDM
• Code division multiplexing
• Military application –
security
• Same frequency same time
division with code.
• Assigning frequency to each
channel with their own code.
• Guard space – necessary
distance in code space
• Party hall – diff languages
 CDM
• Good protection against
interference
Problem
• Complexity for the
receiver they should
know the code
• Decoding correctly
Qn
Summarize the difference between SDM,
TDM, FDM and CDM
 MAC - MOTIVATION
• MAC is elaborate to wired network to wireless
networks?
• CSMA/CD
• Carrier sense multiple access with collision
detection.
• A sender senses medium is free. If the
medium is busy Sender should wait when the
medium is free.
• If the sender detects a collision while sending,
it stops and once sends a jamming signal.
• In wired same strength for overall wire and
some limit in the length.
• If collision occur somewhere in wire
everybody will notice it.
Qn. Why does this scheme fail in wireless
networks?
 Hidden and exposed terminal
• A is hidden for C and vice versa
 Hidden and exposed terminal
• C is exposed to B
 Near and far terminal
• B’s signal drowns out A’s signal.
 SDMA
• Space division multiple access
• Assigning a optimal base station
• Mobile receive diff base station diff quality
• MAC algorithm decides which one is best
• SDMA never used in isolation
• Combination of other schemes
 SDMA
• SDMA algorithm is formed by cells and
sectorized antennas which constitute the
infrastructure implementing SDMA.
Qn. Who performs the MAC algorithm in SDMA?

What could be possible roles of Mobile

station, base station and network provider?
 FDMA
• Frequency division multiple access
• Algorithm used to allocate the frequency
• Fixed or dynamic
• Channels can be assigned same frequency in
all time.
• Many wireless systems to circumvent
narrowband interferences at certain
frequencies, known as frequency hopping.
 FDMA
• Simultaneous access –
BS to MS vice versa

• BS to MS vice versa
separated in different
frequencies called
Frequency division
duplex(FDD)
 FDMA
Both partner know the
frequency in advance;
they cannot just listen
the medium.
Uplink
MS to BS
Downlink
BS to MS
 FDMA
• Fig GSM standard
frequency 900MHZ
• Fixed by national
regulated authority
• Each channel
bandwidth 200KHZ
• Total 124 channels per
direction
 FDMA
Uplink frequency
fu=890MHZ+n.0.2MHZ
Downlink frequency
fd=fu+45MHZ
fd=935MHZ+n.0.2MHZ
Qn
Assume all stations can hear all other stations.
One station want to transmit and senses the
carrier idle. Why can a collision still occur after
the start of transmission.
• A cordless telephone using separate
frequencies for transmission in base and
portable units is known as
A.duplex arrangement
B.half duplex arrangement
C.either (a) or (b)
D.neither (a) nor (b)
 TDMA
• Allocate certain time slots for communication.
• Tuning certain frequency is not necessary.
• Diff. algorithm used
• Separated time same frequency
• Syncho. between sender and receiver
achieved in time domain.
• Dynamic allocation
 Fixed TDM
• Allotting time slot-fixed
manner
• Fixed bandwidth
• But accessing reserved
time slot is difficult
• Competition b/w
different MS
• Guarantee a fixed delay
(e.g) 10ms
 Fixed TDM
• Duplex channel b/w MS
and BS
• Different slot for uplink
and downlink
• Each slots has duration
417μs
• Repletion guarantee
10ms.
 Classical Aloha
• Controlling medium access
• Invented by university of
Hawaii used ALOHANET(1970)
• If you have data to send, send
the data
• If, while you are transmitting
data, you receive any data
from another station, there
has been a message collision.
• All transmitting stations will
need to try resending "later"
 Slotted Aloha
• Slotted Aloha additionally uses
time-slots, sending must always
start at slot boundaries .
• An improvement to the original
ALOHA protocol was "Slotted
ALOHA", which introduced
discrete timeslots and increased
the maximum throughput.
•  A station can start a
transmission only at the
beginning of a timeslot, and
thus collisions are reduced.
• In this case, only transmission-
attempts within 1 frame-time
and not 2 consecutive frame-
times need to be considered,
since collisions can only occur
during each timeslot. 
Classical ALOHA Slotted ALOHA

The original ALOHA protocol is called Slotted ALOHA was invented to improve
classical ALOHA. the efficiency of classical ALOHA.

A simple version classical ALOHA, does not Slotted ALOHA requires slot
require Slots. synchronization.

The idea is that each station sends a Force the station to send only at the
frame whenever it has a frame to send. beginning of the time slot.

However, since there is only one channel If multiple nodes transmit, node detect
to share, there is the possibility of collision collision Slotted.
between frames from different stations.

It does not require global time It does require global time

synchronization. synchronization

Frames in classical ALOHA Frames in Slotted ALOHA

 DAMA - Demand Assigned Multiple
Access
• Channel efficiency only 18% for Aloha, 36% for Slotted
Aloha
• Reservation can increase efficiency to 80%
– a sender reserves a future time-slot
– sending within this reserved time-slot is possible without
collision
– reservation also causes higher delays
– typical scheme for satellite links
• Examples for reservation algorithms:
– Explicit Reservation according to Roberts (Reservation-ALOHA)
– Implicit Reservation (PRMA)
– Reservation-TDMA
 DAMA cont..
– two modes:
• ALOHA mode for reservation:
competition for small reservation slots, collisions possible
• reserved mode for data transmission within successful
reserved slots (no collisions possible)
– it is important for all stations to keep the
reservation list consistent at any point in time and,
therefore, all stations have to synchronize from
time to time

collision

t
Aloha reserved Aloha reserved Aloha reserved Aloha
PRMA- Packet reservation multiple access
– a certain number of slots form a frame, frames are repeated
– stations compete for empty slots according to the slotted
aloha principle
– once a station reserves a slot successfully, this slot is
automatically assigned to this station in all following frames as
long as the station has data to send
– competition for this slots starts again as soon as the slot was
empty in the last frame
reservation
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 time-slot
ACDABA-F
frame1 A CDAB A F
ACDABA-F
frame2 A C AB A
AC-ABAF- collision at
frame3 A B A F
A---BAFD F D reservation
frame4 A B A
ACEEBAFD F D attempts
frame5 A CEEB A
t
 Reservation TDMA
•Reservation Time Division Multiple Access
– every frame consists of N mini-slots and x data-slots
– every station has its own mini-slot and can reserve up to
k data-slots using this mini-slot (i.e. x = N * k).
– other stations can send data in unused data-slots
according to a round-robin sending scheme
e.g. N=6, k=2
N mini-slots N * k data-slots

reservations other stations can use free data-slots

for data-slots based on a round-robin scheme
 MACA - collision avoidance
• MACA (Multiple Access with Collision
Avoidance
– RTS (request to send):
– CTS (clear to send):
• Signaling packets contain
– sender address
– receiver address
– packet size
 MACA examples
• MACA avoids the problem of hidden terminals
– A and C want to
send to B
– A sends RTS first RTS
– C waits after receiving CTS CTS
CTS from B A B C

• MACA avoids the problem of exposed terminals

– B wants to send to A, C
to another terminal
– now C does not have RTS RTS
to wait for it cannot CTS
receive CTS from A A B C
 MACA
sender receiver

idle idle
packet ready to send; RTSdata;
RxBusy time-out; ACK
wait for the RTS time-out  RTS;
ACK time-out right
 to send data; CTS
NAK; NAK
RTS CTS; data
wait for
wait for ACK data

ACK: positive acknowledgement RTS; RxBusy

RxBusy: receiver busy
NAK: negative acknowledgement
 Polling mechanisms
• If one terminal can be heard by all others, this “central”
terminal (a.k.a. base station) can poll all other terminals
according to a certain scheme
– now all schemes known from fixed networks can be used
(typical mainframe - terminal scenario)
• Example: Randomly Addressed Polling
– base station signals readiness to all mobile terminals
– terminals ready to send can now transmit a random number
without collision with the help of CDMA or FDMA (the
random number can be seen as dynamic address)
– the base station now chooses one address for polling from
the list of all random numbers (collision if two terminals
choose the same address)
– the base station acknowledges correct packets and continues
polling the next terminal
– this cycle starts again after polling all terminals of the list
 ISMA (Inhibit Sense Multiple Access)
• Current state of the medium is signaled via a “busy tone”
– the base station signals on the downlink (base station to
terminals) if the medium is free or not
– terminals must not send if the medium is busy
– terminals can access the medium as soon as the busy tone stops
– the base station signals collisions and successful transmissions
via the busy tone and acknowledgements, respectively (media
access is not coordinated within this approach)
 CDMA
•CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access)
– all terminals send on the same frequency probably at the same
time and can use the whole bandwidth of the transmission
channel
– each sender has a unique random number
– the receiver can “tune” into this signal if it knows the pseudo
random number
•Disadvantages:
– higher complexity of a receiver (receiver cannot just listen into
the medium and start receiving if there is a signal)
– all signals should have the same strength at a receiver
•Advantages:
– all terminals can use the same frequency, no planning needed
– huge code space (e.g. 232) compared to frequency space
– interferences (e.g. white noise) is not coded
– forward error correction and encryption can be easily integrated
CDMA in theory
 CDMA in theory
• Sender A
– sends Ad = 1, key Ak = 010011 (assign: „0“= -1, „1“= +1)
– sending signal As = Ad * Ak = (-1, +1, -1, -1, +1, +1)
• Sender B
– sends Bd = 0, key Bk = 110101 (assign: „0“= -1, „1“= +1)
– sending signal Bs = Bd * Bk = (-1, -1, +1, -1, +1, -1)
• Both signals superimpose in space
– interference neglected (noise etc.)
– As + Bs = (-2, 0, 0, -2, +2, 0)
 CDMA in theory
• Receiver wants to receive signal from sender A
– apply key Ak bitwise (inner product)
• Ae = (-2, 0, 0, -2, +2, 0) (-1, +1, -1, -1, +1, +1)
• A e *A k = 2 + 0 + 0 + 2 + 2 + 0 = 6
• result greater than 0, therefore, original bit was ‘’1“
– receiving B
• Be = (-2, 0, 0, -2, +2, 0) (-1, -1, +1, -1, +1, -1)
• Be *Bk = -2 + 0 + 0 - 2 - 2 + 0 = -6,
• result less than 0, therefore, original bit was ‘’0“
 data A
CDMA on signal level I Ad
1 0 1
key A
key
0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 Ak
sequence A
data  key1 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0

signal A As

Real systems use much longer keys resulting in a larger distance

etween single code words in code space.
 CDMA on signal level II
signal A As

data B 1 0 0 Bd

key B
key
0 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 Bk
sequence B
data  key1 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 1

signal B Bs

As + Bs
 data A CDMA
1 on signal
0 level 1III Ad

As + Bs

Ak

(As + Bs)
* Ak
integrator
output
comparator
output 0 1 0
 data B CDMA
1 on signal
0 level 0IV Bd

As + Bs

Bk

(As + Bs)
* Bk
integrator
output
comparator
output 0 1 1
 CDMA on signal level V
As + Bs

wrong
key K

(As + Bs)
*K

integrator
output
comparator
output (1) (1) ?
 SAMA - Spread Aloha Multiple Access
• Aloha has only a very low efficiency, CDMA needs complex receivers to be able to receive different senders with individual
codes at the same time
• Idea: use spread spectrum with only one single code (chipping sequence) for spreading for all senders accessing according
to aloha

collision
sender A 1 0 1 narrow
sender B 0 1 1 band
send for a
shorter period
with higher power

t
Problem: find a chipping sequence with good characteristics
e signal e.g. using the chipping sequence 110101 („CDMA without CD“)
 Comparison
SDMA/TDMA/FDMA/CDMA
Approach SDMA TDMA FDMA CDMA
Idea segment space into segment sending segment the spread the spectrum
cells/sectors time into disjoint frequency band into using orthogonal codes
time-slots, demand disjoint sub-bands
driven or fixed
patterns
Terminals only one terminal can all terminals are every terminal has its all terminals can be active
be active in one active for short own frequency, at the same place at the
cell/one sector periods of time on uninterrupted same moment,
the same frequency uninterrupted
Signal cell structure, directed synchronization in filtering in the code plus special
separation antennas the time domain frequency domain receivers

Advantages very simple, increases established, fully simple, established, flexible, less frequency
capacity per km² digital, flexible robust planning needed, soft
handover
Dis- inflexible, antennas guard space inflexible, complex receivers, needs
advantages typically fixed needed (multipath frequencies are a more complicated power
propagation), scarce resource control for senders
synchronization
difficult
Comment only in combination standard in fixed typically combined still faces some problems,
with TDMA, FDMA or networks, together with TDMA higher complexity,
CDMA useful with FDMA/SDMA (frequency hopping lowered expectations; will
used in many patterns) and SDMA be integrated with
mobile networks (frequency reuse) TDMA/FDMA
GSM
 History
If you are in Europe or Asia and using a mobile phone,
then most probably you are using GSM technology in
your mobile phone.
• GSM stands for Global System for Mobile
Communication. It is a digital cellular technology used
for transmitting mobile voice and data services.
• The concept of GSM emerged from a cell-based mobile
radio system at Bell Laboratories in the early 1970s.
• GSM is the name of a standardization group
established in 1982 to create a common European
mobile telephone standard.
• GSM is the most widely accepted standard in
telecommunications and it is implemented globally.
• GSM is a circuit-switched system that divides each 200
kHz channel into eight 25 kHz time-slots.
• GSM operates on the mobile communication bands
900 MHz and 1800 MHz in most parts of the world.
• In the US, GSM operates in the bands 850 MHz and
1900 MHz.
• GSM owns a market share of more than 70 percent of
the world's digital cellular subscribers.
• GSM makes use of narrowband Time Division Multiple
Access (TDMA) technique for transmitting signals.
• GSM was developed using digital technology. It
has an ability to carry 64 kbps to 120 Mbps of
data rates.
• Presently GSM supports more than one billion
mobile subscribers in more than 210 countries
throughout the world.
• GSM provides basic to advanced voice and data
services including roaming service. Roaming is
the ability to use your GSM phone number in
another GSM network.
 Why GSM
• Improved spectrum efficiency
• International roaming
• Low-cost mobile sets and base stations (BSs)
• High-quality speech
• Compatibility with Integrated Services Digital
Network (ISDN) and other telephone company
services
• Support for new services
 Years Events

1982 Conference of European Posts and Telegraph (CEPT) establishes a

GSM group to widen the standards for a pan-European cellular
mobile system.

1985 A list of recommendations to be generated by the group is

accepted.

1986 Executed field tests to check the different radio techniques

recommended for the air interface.

1987 Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) is chosen as the access

method (with Frequency Division Multiple Access [FDMA]). The
initial Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) is signed by
telecommunication operators representing 12 countries.
1988 GSM system is validated.

1989 The European Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI) was

given the responsibility of the GSM specifications.

1990 Phase 1 of the GSM specifications is delivered.

1991 Commercial launch of the GSM service occurs. The DCS1800

specifications are finalized.

1992 The addition of the countries that signed the GSM MoU takes place.
Coverage spreads to larger cities and airports.
1993 Coverage of main roads GSM services starts outside Europe.

1994 Data transmission capabilities launched. The number of networks

rises to 69 in 43 countries by the end of 1994.

1995 Phase 2 of the GSM specifications occurs. Coverage is extended to

rural areas.

1996 June: 133 network in 81 countries operational.

1997 July: 200 network in 109 countries operational, around 44 million

subscribers worldwide.
1999 Wireless Application Protocol (WAP) came into existence and
became operational in 130 countries with 260 million subscribers.

2000 General Packet Radio Service(GPRS) came into existence.

2001 As of May 2001, over 550 million people were subscribers to mobile
telecommunications.
 GSM SERVICES
GSM offers three basic types of services:
• Teleservices
• Bearer services PLMN- Public land mobile network
ISDN-Integrated Services Digital Network

• Supplementary services PSTN-Public

TE-Terminal
switched Telephone network

MT-Mobile termination
 GSM Services(Cont..)
Mobile termination which handles functions such as radio
transmission, speech encoding/ decoding, error detection/
correction, and access to the SIM. 
Terminal equipment is any device connected to
the mobile station which offers services to the user, such as
a mobile phone or other mobile device.

111
 GSM Services(Cont..)
A public land mobile network (PLMN) is any wireless
communications system intended for use by terrestrial
subscribers in vehicles or on foot. Such a system can stand alone,
but often it is interconnected with a fixed system such as the
public switched telephone network (PSTN).

112
 GSM Services(Cont..)
PSTN or Public Switched Telephone Network is simply or most
commonly known as a 'telephone line'. A PSTN phone number is
equivalent to one phone line. 
ISDN or Integrated Services Digital Network provides digital
transmission of voice and data services.

113
 Teleservices
Voice Calls
• The most basic Tele service supported by GSM is telephony. This includes
full-rate speech at 13 kbps and emergency calls, where the nearest
emergency-service provider is notified by dialing three digits.
Videotext and Facsmile
• Another group of tele services includes Videotext access, Teletex
transmission, Facsmile alternate speech and Facsmile Group 3, Automatic
Facsmile Group, 3 etc.
Short Text Messages
• Short Messaging Service (SMS) service is a text messaging service that
allows sending and receiving text messages on your GSM mobile phone.
In addition to simple text messages, other text data including news, sports,
financial, language, and location-based data can also be transmitted.
 Bearer Services
• Data services or Bearer Services are used through a GSM
phone. to receive and send data is the essential building block
leading to widespread mobile Internet access and mobile data
transfer.

• GSM currently has a data transfer rate of 9600 bit/sec.

• New developments that will push up data transfer rates for

GSM users are HSCSD (high speed circuit switched data) and
GPRS (general packet radio service) are now available
 Supplementary Services
• Conferencing : It allows a mobile subscriber to establish a multiparty
conversation, i.e., a simultaneous conversation between three or more
subscribers to setup a conference call. This service is only applicable to
normal telephony.
• Call Waiting : This service notifies a mobile subscriber of an incoming
call during a conversation. The subscriber can answer, reject, or ignore the
incoming call.
• Call Hold : This service allows a subscriber to put an incoming call on
hold and resume after a while. The call hold service is applicable to normal
telephony.
• Call Forwarding : Call Forwarding is used to divert calls from the original
recipient to another number. It is normally set up by the subscriber himself.
It can be used by the subscriber to divert calls from the Mobile Station
when the subscriber is not available, and so to ensure that calls are not lost.
• Call Barring : Call Barring is useful to restrict certain types of outgoing calls
such as ISD or stop incoming calls from undesired numbers. Call barring is
a flexible service that enables the subscriber to conditionally bar calls.
GSM Architecture
 GSM Architecture(Cont..)
The GSM network can be
broadly divided into three,

• The Radio Subsystem (RSS)

• The Network Switching
Subsystem (NSS)
• The Operation Support
Subsystem (OSS)
 GSM Architecture(Cont..)
Mobile Station (MS):
• A mobile station communicates across the
air interface with a base station
transceiver in the same cell in which the
mobile subscriber unit is located.
• The user’s voice information is interfaced
with the MS through a microphone and
speaker for the speech, keypad, and
display for short messaging, and the cable
connection for other data terminals.
• The MS has two elements. The Mobile
Equipment (ME) refers to the physical
device, which comprises of transceiver,
digital signal processors, and the antenna.
The second element of the MS is the
GSM is the Subscriber Identity Module
(SIM). 
 GSM Architecture(Cont..)
Base Station Subsystem (BSS):
• A base station subsystem consists of a
base station controller and one or
more base transceiver station.
• Each Base Transceiver Station defines
a single cell.
• A cell can have a radius of between
100m to 35km, depending on the
environment.
• A Base Station Controller may be
connected with a BTS.
• It may control multiple BTS units and
hence multiple cells.
 GSM Architecture(Cont..)
Base Transceiver Station(BTS)
• A BTS comprises all radio equipment, i.e.,
antennas, signal processing, amplifiers
necessary for radio transmission.
• A BTS can form a radio cell or, using
sectorized antennas, several cells and is
connected to MS via the Um interface
(ISDN U interface for mobile use), and to
the BSC via the Abis interface.
• The Um interface contains all the
mechanisms necessary for wireless
transmission (TDMA, FDMA etc.) .The A
bis interface consists of 16 or 64 kbit/s
connections.
 GSM Architecture(Cont..)
Base station controller (BSC):

• The BSC basically manages the

BTSs.
• It reserves radio frequencies,
handles the handover from one
BTS to another within the BSS, and
performs paging of the MS.
• The BSC also multiplexes the radio
channels onto the fixed network
connections at the A interface.
 GSM Architecture(Cont..)
Network and switching subsystem (NSS)
• The NSS is responsible for the network
operation. It provides the link between
the cellular network and the Public
switched telecommunicates Networks
(PSTN or ISDN or Data Networks).

 In particular the switching subsystem

consists of:
• Mobile Service switching center (MSC)
• Home location register (HLR)
• Visitor location Register (VLR)
 GSM Architecture(Cont..)
Mobile service switching center (MSC)
• MSCs are high-performance digital ISDN
switches. They set up connections to other
MSCs and to the BSCs
via the A interface, and form the fixed
backbone network of a GSM system.
• Typically, an MSC manages several BSCs in
a geographical region. A gateway
MSC (GMSC) has additional connections to
other fixed networks, such as
PSTN and ISDN.
• Using additional interworking functions
(IWF),an MSC an also connect to public
data networks (PDN) such as X.25.
• An MSC handles all signaling needed for
connection setup, connection release and
handover of connections to other MSCs.
 GSM Architecture(Cont..)
HLR:
• The HLR is database software that handles the
management of the mobile subscriber
account. It stores the subscriber address,
service type, current locations, forwarding
address, authentication/ciphering keys, and
billings information. 
VLR:
• The VLR is temporary database software
similar to the HLR identifying the mobile
subscribers visiting inside the coverage area
of an MSC.
• The visitor location register maintains
information about mobile subscriber tha tis
currently physically in the range covered by
the switching center.
• When a mobile subscriber roams from one LA
(Local Area) to another, current location is
automatically updated in the VLR.  
 GSM Architecture(Cont..)
Operation subsystem (OSS)
• The third part of a GSM system, the
operation subsystem (OSS), contains the
necessary functions for network
operation and maintenance.

The following entities have been defined:

• Operation and maintained center(OMC)
• Authentication centre(AUC)
• Equipment Identity Register(EIR)
 GSM Architecture(Cont..)
Operation and maintained center(OMC)

• Typical OMC management functions are

traffic monitoring, status reports of network
entities, subscriber and security management,
or accounting and billing.
AUC:
• The AuC database holds different algorithms
that are used for authentication and
encryptions of the mobile subscribers that
verify the mobile user’s identity and ensure
the confidentiality of each call.
• The AuC holds the authentication and
encryption keys for all the subscribers in both
the home and visitor location register.
•
 GSM Architecture(Cont..)
EIR:
• The EIR is another database that keeps
the information about the identity of
mobile equipment such the International
mobile Equipment Identity (IMEI) that
reveals the details about the
manufacturer, country of production,
and device type.
• This information is used to prevent calls
from being misused, to prevent
unauthorised or defective MSs, to report
stolen mobile phones or check if the
mobile phone is operating according to
the specification of its type.
Radio interface
 Radio interface
3 tail bits: These tail bits at the start of the GSM burst give time for the
transmitter to ramp up its power
57 data bits: This block of data is used to carry information, and most often
contains the digitized voice data although on occasions it may be replaced
with signaling information in the form of the Fast Associated Control Channel
(FACCH). The type of data is indicated by the flag that follows the data field
1 bit flag: This bit within the GSM burst indicates the type of data in the
previous field.
26 bits training sequence: This training sequence is used as a timing
reference and for equalization. There is a total of eight different bit
sequences that may be used, each 26 bits long. The same sequence is used in
each GSM slot, but nearby base stations using the same radio frequency
channels will use different ones, and this enables the mobile to differentiate
between the various cells using the same frequency.
 Radio interface
1 bit flag Again this flag indicates the type of data in the data field.
57 data bits Again, this block of data within the GSM burst is used for
carrying data.
3 tail bits These final bits within the GSM burst are used to enable the
transmitter power to ramp down. They are often called final tail bits, or just
tail bits.
8.25 bits guard time At the end of the GSM burst there is a guard period.
This is introduced to prevent transmitted bursts from different mobiles
overlapping. As a result of their differing distances from the base station.
GSM protocol Architecture
 GSM protocol Architecture
Based on the interface, the GSM signaling protocol is assembled into three
general layers −
•Layer 1 − The physical layer. It uses the channel structures over the air
interface.
•Layer 2 − The data-link layer. Across the Um interface, the data-link layer is a
modified version of the Link access protocol for the D channel (LAP-D)
protocol used in ISDN, called Link access protocol on the Dm channel (LAP-
Dm). Across the A interface, the Message Transfer Part (MTP), Layer 2 of SS7 is
used.
•Layer 3 − GSM signaling protocol’s third layer is divided into three sublayers :
– Radio Resource Management (RR),
– Mobility Management (MM), and
– Connection Management (CM).
 GSM protocol Architecture
MS to BTS Protocols
•The RR layer is the lower layer that manages a link, both radio and fixed, between
the MS and the MSC. For this formation, the main components involved are the MS,
BSS, and MSC. The responsibility of the RR layer is to manage the RR-session, the time
when a mobile is in a dedicated mode, and the radio channels including the allocation
of dedicated channels.
•The MM layer is stacked above the RR layer. It handles the functions that arise from
the mobility of the subscriber, as well as the authentication and security aspects.
Location management is concerned with the procedures that enable the system to
know the current location of a powered-on MS so that incoming call routing can be
completed.
•The CM layer is the topmost layer of the GSM protocol stack. This layer is responsible
for Call Control, Supplementary Service Management, and Short Message Service
Management. Each of these services are treated as individual layer within the CM
layer. Other functions of the CC sublayer include call establishment, selection of the
type of service (including alternating between services during a call), and call release.
 GSM protocol Architecture
BSC Protocols
•The BSC uses a different set of protocols after receiving the data from the BTS. The
Abis interface is used between the BTS and BSC. At this level, the radio resources at
the lower portion of Layer 3 are changed from the RR to the Base Transceiver Station
Management (BTSM). The BTS management layer is a relay function at the BTS to the
BSC.
•The RR protocols are responsible for the allocation and reallocation of traffic channels
between the MS and the BTS. These services include controlling the initial access to
the system, paging for MT calls, the handover of calls between cell sites, power
control, and call termination. The BSC still has some radio resource management in
place for the frequency coordination, frequency allocation, and the management of
the overall network layer for the Layer 2 interfaces.
•To transit from the BSC to the MSC, the BSS mobile application part or the direct
application part is used, and SS7 protocols is applied by the relay, so that the MTP 1-3
can be used as the prime architecture.
 GSM protocol Architecture
MSC Protocols
•At the MSC, starting from the BSC, the information is mapped across the A interface
to the MTP Layers 1 through 3. Here, Base Station System Management Application
Part (BSS MAP) is said to be the equivalent set of radio resources. The relay process is
finished by the layers that are stacked on top of Layer 3 protocols, they are BSS
MAP/DTAP, MM, and CM. This completes the relay process. To find and connect to
the users across the network, MSCs interact using the control-signalling network.
Location registers are included in the MSC databases to assist in the role of
determining how and whether connections are to be made to roaming users.
•Each GSM MS user is given a HLR that in turn comprises of the user’s location and
subscribed services. VLR is a separate register that is used to track the location of a
user. When the users move out of the HLR covered area, the VLR is notified by the MS
to find the location of the user. The VLR in turn, with the help of the control network,
signals the HLR of the MS’s new location. With the help of location information
contained in the user’s HLR, the MT calls can be routed to the user
Handover
 Handover
• One of the key elements of a mobile phone or cellular
telecommunications system, is that the system is split into
many small cells to provide good frequency re-use and
coverage.
• However as the mobile moves out of one cell to another it
must be possible to retain the connection.
• The process by which this occurs is known as handover or
handoff.
• The term handover is more widely used within Europe,
whereas handoff tends to be use more in North America.
• Either way, handover and handoff are the same process.
 Handover
 The process of handover or handoff within any cellular system
is of great importance.
 It is a critical process and if performed incorrectly handover
can result in the loss of the call.
 Dropped calls are particularly annoying to users and if the
number of dropped calls rises, customer dissatisfaction
increases and they are likely to change to another network.
 Accordingly GSM handover was an area to which particular
attention was paid when developing the standard.
 Handover
Types of GSM handover
Within the GSM system there are four types of handover that can be
performed for GSM only systems:
•Intra-BTS handover:   This form of GSM handover occurs if it is required to
change the frequency or slot being used by a mobile because of interference,
or other reasons. In this form of GSM handover, the mobile remains attached
to the same base station transceiver, but changes the channel or slot.
•Inter-BTS Intra BSC handover:   This for of GSM handover or GSM handoff
occurs when the mobile moves out of the coverage area of one BTS but into
another controlled by the same BSC. In this instance the BSC is able to
perform the handover  and it assigns a new channel and slot to the mobile,
before releasing the old BTS from communicating with the mobile.
 Handover
• Inter-BSC handover:   When the mobile moves out of
the range of cells controlled by one BSC, a more
involved form of handover has to be performed,
handing over not only from one BTS to another but
one BSC to another. For this the handover is
controlled by the MSC.
• Inter-MSC handover:   This form of handover occurs
when changing between networks. The two MSCs
involved negotiate to control the handover
Security
 Security
• GSM is the most secured cellular telecommunications system
available today. GSM has its security methods standardized.
GSM maintains end-to-end security by retaining the
confidentiality of calls and anonymity of the GSM subscriber.
• Temporary identification numbers are assigned to the
subscriber’s number to maintain the privacy of the user. The
privacy of the communication is maintained by applying
encryption algorithms and frequency hopping that can be
enabled using digital systems and signalling.
 Security
Mobile Station Authentication
•The GSM network authenticates the identity of the subscriber
through the use of a challenge-response mechanism. A 128-bit
Random Number (RAND) is sent to the MS.
•The MS computes the 32-bit Signed Response (SRES) based on
the encryption of the RAND with the authentication algorithm
(A3) using the individual subscriber authentication key (Ki).
•Upon receiving the SRES from the subscriber, the GSM network
repeats the calculation to verify the identity of the subscriber.
 Security
Mobile Station Authentication
•The individual subscriber authentication key (Ki) is never
transmitted over the radio channel, as it is present in the
subscriber's SIM, as well as the AUC, HLR, and VLR databases. If
the received SRES agrees with the calculated value, the MS has
been successfully authenticated and may continue.
•If the values do not match, the connection is terminated and an
authentication failure is indicated to the MS.
•The calculation of the signed response is processed within the
SIM. It provides enhanced security, as confidential subscriber
information such as the IMSI or the individual subscriber
authentication key (Ki) is never released from the SIM during the
authentication process.
 Security
Signaling and Data Confidentiality
•The SIM contains the ciphering key generating algorithm (A8) that
is used to produce the 64-bit ciphering key (Kc).
•This key is computed by applying the same random number
(RAND) used in the authentication process to ciphering key
generating algorithm (A8) with the individual subscriber
authentication key (Ki).
•GSM provides an additional level of security by having a way to
change the ciphering key, making the system more resistant to
eavesdropping.
•The ciphering key may be changed at regular intervals as
required.
• As in case of the authentication process, the computation of the
ciphering key (Kc) takes place internally within the SIM.
 Security
Signaling and Data Confidentiality
•Therefore, sensitive information such as the individual
subscriber authentication key (Ki) is never revealed by the SIM.
•Encrypted voice and data communications between the MS and
the network is accomplished by using the ciphering algorithm
A5.
•Encrypted communication is initiated by a ciphering mode
request command from the GSM network.
•Upon receipt of this command, the mobile station begins
encryption and decryption of data using the ciphering algorithm
(A5) and the ciphering key (Kc).
 Security
Subscriber Identity Confidentiality
•To ensure subscriber identity confidentiality, the Temporary
Mobile Subscriber Identity (TMSI) is used.
•Once the authentication and encryption procedures are done,
the TMSI is sent to the mobile station.
•After the receipt, the mobile station responds. The TMSI is valid
in the location area in which it was issued.
• For communications outside the location area, the Location
Area Identification (LAI) is necessary in addition to the TMSI.
Localization and Calling
 Localization and Calling
Introduction:
•GSM has an additional feature of worldwide localization of user’s .GSM System
always know where a user currently is, and the same phone number is valid
worldwide.
Localization:
•GSM performs periodic location updates even if a user does not use the
mobile station.
•The HLR always contains information about the current location
•The VLR currently responsible for the MS informs the HLR about location
changes.
•As soon as an MS moves into the range of a new location area (new VLR) the
HLR sends all user data needed to the new VLR.
•Changing VLRs with uninterrupted availability of all services is also called
roaming.
•Following are some numbers which are needed to locate an MS and to
address.
 Localization and Calling
Mobile station international ISDN number (MSISDN): This number
consists of the country code (CC), the national destination code (NDC)
(i.e., the address of the network provider, e.g., 179), and the
subscriber number (SN).
International mobile subscriber identity (IMSI): IMSI consists of a
mobile country code (MCC) the mobile network code (MNC) (i.e., the
code of the network provider), and finally the mobile subscriber
identification number (MSIN).
Temporary mobile subscriber identity (TMSI): TMSI is selected by the
current VLR and is only valid temporarily and within the location area
of the VLR
Mobile station7 roaming number (MSRN): MSRN contains the current
visitor country code (VCC), the visitor national destination code
(VNDC), the identification of the current MSC together with the
subscriber number.
 Localization and Calling
Calling: MOBILE TERMINATED CALL
•A situation in which a station calls a mobile station.
•Basic steps needed to connect the calling station with the mobile user
are:
• Step 1: a user dials the phone number of a GSM subscriber.
•Step 2: The fixed network (PSTN) notices that the number belongs to
a user in the GSM network and forwards the call setup to the Gateway
MSC.
•Step 3: The GMSC identifies the HLR for the subscriber and signals the
call setup to the HLR.
•Step 4: The HLR now checks whether the number exists and whether
the user has subscribed to the requested services, and requests an
MSRN from the current VLR.
•Step 5:MSRN is received 
 Localization and Calling
MOBILE TERMINATED CALL:
•Step 6: the HLR determine the MSC responsible for the MS and
forwards this information to the GMSC. 
•Step 7: The GMSC now forward the call setup request to the
MSC indicated.
•Step 8: MSC requests the current status of the MS from the
VLR.
•Step 9&10: If MS is available MSC initiates paging in all cells.
•Step11: BTSs of all BSSs transmit this paging signal to  MS If the
MS answers (12 and 13), the VLR perform security checks
(encryption). The VLR signals to the MSC to set up a connection
to the MS (steps 15 to 17).
GPRS Architecture
GPRS is usually attempts to reuse the existing GSM
network elements as much as possible. There are
new entities called GPRS that supports nodes (GSN)
which are responsible for delivery and routing of
data packets between mobile stations and external
packets networks. There are two types of GSNs,

– Serving GPRS Support Node (SGNS)

– Gateway GPRS Support Node (GGNS)
 SGSN
• The serving GPRS support node (SGSN) is responsible for
routing the packet switched data to and from the mobile
stations (MS) within its area of responsibility.
• The main functions of SGSN are packet routing and transfer,
mobile attach and detach procedure (Mobility Management
(MM)), location management, assigning channels and time
slots (Logical Link Management (LLM)), authentication and
charging for calls.
• It stores the location information of the user (like the current
location, current VLR) and user profile (like IMSI addresses
used in packet data networks) of registered users in its
location register.
 GGSN
• The GGSN, Gateway GPRS Support Node is one of the most
important entities within the GPRS network architecture.
• The GGSN organizes the interworking between the GPRS network
and external packet switched networks to which the mobiles may be
connected. These may include both Internet and X.25 networks.
• The GGSN can be considered to be a combination of a gateway,
router and firewall as it hides the internal network to the outside.
• In operation, when the GGSN receives data addressed to a specific
user, it checks if the user is active, then forwarding the data.
• In the opposite direction, packet data from the mobile is routed to
the right destination network by the GGSN.
GPRS Protocol Architecture
• A base station subsystem GPRS protocol
(BSSGP) is used to convey routing and QoS-
related information between the BSS and
SGSN.
• BSSGP does not perform error correction
and works on top of a frame relay (FR)
network.
• Finally, radio link dependent protocols
are needed to transfer data over the Um
interface.
The radio link protocol (RLC) provides a
reliable link, while the MAC controls access
with signaling procedures for the radio
channel and the mapping of LLC frames onto
the GSM physical channels.
The radio interface at Um needed for GPRS
does not require fundamental changes
compared to standard GSM (Brasche, 1997),
(ETSI, 1998d). However, several new logical
channels and their mapping onto physical
resources have been defined.
• A very important factor for any application working end-
to-end is that it does not ‘notice’ any details from the
GSM/GPRS-related infrastructure.
• The application uses, e.g., TCP on top of IP, IP packets are
tunneled to the GGSN, which forwards them into the PDN.
• All PDNs forward their packets for a GPRS
user to the GGSN, the GGSN asks the current SGSN for
tunnel parameters, and forwards the packets via SGSN to
the MS.
 Modulation
• Digital modulation
– digital data is translated into an analog signal (baseband)
– ASK, FSK, PSK - main focus in this chapter
– differences in spectral efficiency, power efficiency, robustness
• Analog modulation
– shifts center frequency of baseband signal up to the radio carrier
• Motivation
– smaller antennas (e.g., /4)
– Frequency Division Multiplexing
– medium characteristics
• Basic schemes
– Amplitude Modulation (AM)
– Frequency Modulation (FM)
– Phase Modulation (PM)
 Modulation and demodulation
analog
baseband
digital
signal
data digital analog
101101001 modulation modulation radio transmitter

radio
carrier

analog
baseband
digital
signal
analog synchronization data
demodulation decision 101101001 radio receiver

radio
carrier
 Digital modulation
1 0 1
• Modulation of digital signals known as Shift Keying
• Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK):
t
– very simple
– low bandwidth requirements
1 0 1
– very susceptible to interference

• Frequency Shift Keying (FSK): t

– needs larger bandwidth

1 0 1

• Phase Shift Keying (PSK):

– more complex t
– robust against interference
 Advanced Frequency Shift Keying
• bandwidth needed for FSK depends on the distance between the carrier
frequencies
• special pre-computation avoids sudden phase shifts
 MSK (Minimum Shift Keying)
– bit separated into even and odd bits, the duration of each bit is
doubled
– depending on the bit values (even, odd) the higher or lower
frequency, original or inverted is chosen
– the frequency of one carrier is twice the frequency of the other
– Equivalent to offset QPSK

• even higher bandwidth efficiency using a Gaussian low-pass filter 

GMSK (Gaussian MSK), used in GSM
 Example of MSK
1 0 1 1 0 1 0
data bit
even 0101
even bits odd 0011

odd bits signal hnnh

value - - ++

low h: high frequency

frequency n: low frequency
+: original signal
-: inverted signal
high
frequency

MSK
signal
t

No phase shifts!
 Advanced Phase Shift Keying
Q

• BPSK (Binary Phase Shift Keying): I

1 0
– bit value 0: sine wave
– bit value 1: inverted sine wave
– very simple PSK 10 Q 11
– low spectral efficiency
– robust, used e.g. in satellite systems
I
• QPSK (Quadrature Phase Shift Keying):
– 2 bits coded as one symbol
– symbol determines shift of sine wave 00 01
– needs less bandwidth compared to BPSK
A
– more complex
• Often also transmission of relative, not
absolute phase shift: DQPSK -
Differential QPSK (IS-136, PHS) t

11 10 00 01
Quadrature Amplitude Modulation
• Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM)
– combines amplitude and phase modulation
– it is possible to code n bits using one symbol
– 2n discrete levels, n=2 identical to QPSK
• Bit error rate increases with n, but less errors compared to comparable
PSK schemes Q
– Example: 16-QAM (4 bits = 1 symbol) 0010
0001
– Symbols 0011 and 0001 have 0011 0000
the same phase φ, but different φ

amplitude a. 0000 and 1000 have a I

different phase, but same amplitude. 1000
 Hierarchical Modulation
• DVB-T modulates two separate data streams onto a single DVB-T stream
• High Priority (HP) embedded within a Low Priority (LP) stream
• Multi carrier system, about 2000 or 8000 carriers
• QPSK, 16 QAM, 64QAM
• Example: 64QAM Q
– good reception: resolve the entire
64QAM constellation
– poor reception, mobile reception:
resolve only QPSK portion 10
I
– 6 bit per QAM symbol, 2 most
significant determine QPSK
– HP service coded in QPSK (2 bit),
LP uses remaining 4 bit 00

000010 010101
 Spread spectrum technology
• Problem of radio transmission: frequency dependent fading can wipe out
narrow band signals for duration of the interference
• Solution: spread the narrow band signal into a broad band signal using a
special code
– protection against narrow band interference
power interference spread signal power signal

spread
detection at interference
receiver

• f f
Side effects:
– coexistence of several signals without dynamic coordination
– tap-proof
• Alternatives: Direct Sequence, Frequency Hopping
 Effects of spreading and
interference
dP/df dP/df

user signal
i) ii) broadband interference
narrowband interference
f f
sender
dP/df dP/df dP/df

iii) iv) v)
f f f
receiver
 Spreading and frequency selective
channel
quality
fading
1 2 5 6 narrowband channels
3
4
frequency
narrow band guard space
signal

channel
quality
2
2
2
spread spectrum channels
2
2
1

spread frequency
spectrum
 DSSS (Direct Sequence Spread
Spectrum) I
• XOR of the signal with pseudo-random number (chipping sequence)
– many chips per bit (e.g., 128) result in higher bandwidth of the signal
tb
• Advantages
– reduces frequency selective user data
fading 0 1 XOR
– in cellular networks tc

• base stations can use the chipping

sequence
same frequency range 01101010110101 =
• several base stations can
resulting
detect and recover the signal signal
• soft handover 01101011001010
• Disadvantages
tb: bit period
– precise power control necessary tc: chip period
DSSS (Direct Sequence Spread
Spectrum) II
spread
spectrum transmit
user data signal signal
X modulator

chipping radio
sequence carrier

transmitter

correlator
lowpass sampled
received filtered products sums
signal signal data
demodulator X integrator decision

radio chipping
carrier sequence

receiver
 FHSS (Frequency Hopping Spread
Spectrum) I
• Discrete changes of carrier frequency
– sequence of frequency changes determined via pseudo random number
sequence
• Two versions
– Fast Hopping:
several frequencies per user bit
– Slow Hopping:
several user bits per frequency
• Advantages
– frequency selective fading and interference limited to short period
– simple implementation
– uses only small portion of spectrum at any time
• Disadvantages
– not as robust as DSSS
– simpler to detect
 FHSS (Frequency Hopping Spread
Spectrum) II
tb

user data

0 1 0 1 1 t
f
td
f3 slow
f2 hopping
(3 bits/hop)
f1

td t
f

f3 fast
f2 hopping
(3 hops/bit)
f1

tb: bit period td: dwell time

FHSS (Frequency Hopping Spread
Spectrum) III narrowband
spread
signal
transmit
user data signal
modulator modulator

frequency hopping
synthesizer sequence
transmitter

narrowband
received signal
signal data
demodulator demodulator

hopping frequency
sequence synthesizer
receiver