UCU Arua Campus

FS 1102 Basic Computing

Lecture One: Introduction – History of Computing

Lecturer: Wamusi Robert

Phone: 0787432609
Email: [email protected]
Learning Outcomes
By the end of this lecture students will be able
to
Describe the historical evolution of computers
List some important milestones in computer
evolution.
Comprehend the various classes of computing
devices
Categorize computers according to generation
and function.
Computer defined
Compute - (to determine by calculation, to
make sense, add up, )
Computer - An electronic device designed to
manipulate useful information
An electronic device, operating under the
control of instructions stored in its own
memory unit, that can accept data, process
data arithmetically and logically, produce
output from the processing, and store the
results for future use
Counting
Man started off by counting on his digits
Needed ways to measure months and seasons in
order to perform festivals and ceremonies
Counting is the action of finding the number of
elements of a finite set of objects.
The traditional way of counting consists of
continually increasing a (mental or spoken) counter
by a unit for every element of the set, in some
order, while marking (or displacing) those elements
to avoid visiting the same element more than once,
until no unmarked elements are left;
Primitive Calendar
Stonehenge
◦ Home for thousands of years to ceremonial
and religious events involving the summer
solstice
Primitive Calendar - Stonehenge
From the caves and the forests, man slowly
evolved and built structures such as
Stonehenge.
Stonehenge, which lies 13km north of
Salisbury, England, is believed to have been
an ancient form of calendar designed to
capture the light from the summer solstice in
a specific fashion.
The solstices have long been special days for
various religious groups and cults
 Pre - Mechanical Computing
From Counting on fingers
To pebbles
To hash marks on walls
To hash marks on bone
To hash marks in sand

Interesting thought:
Do any species, other than homo sapiens,
count?
Mechanical Computers – The Abacus
(4000 BC)
The abacus is still a mainstay of basic computation
in some societies.
It works by sliding the beads up and down on the
rods to add and subtract.
In Asia, the Chinese were becoming very involved
in commerce with the Japanese, Indians, and
Koreans. Businessmen needed a way to tally
accounts and bills. Somehow, out of this need, the
abacus was born.
The abacus is the first true precursor to the adding
machines and computers which would follow
The Abacus
Napier’s Bones and
Logarithms (1617)
John Napier, a Scotsman, invented
logarithms which use lookup tables to
find the solution to otherwise tedious and
error-prone mathematical calculations.
Napier's bones is a manually-operated
calculating device created by John Napier
of Merchiston for calculation of products
and quotients of numbers.
Napier's bones and Logarithms
.
Oughtred’s (1621) and
Schickard‘s (1623] slide rule
After John Napier invented logarithms, and
Edmund Gunter created the logarithmic scales
(lines, or rules) upon which slide rules are
based, it was Oughtred who first used two such
scales sliding by one another to perform direct
multiplication and division; and he is credited
as the inventor of the slide rule in 1622.
Oughtred also introduced the "×" symbol for
multiplication as well as the abbreviations "sin"
and "cos" for the sine and cosine functions.
The Slide Rule (cont.)
The slide rule is used primarily for
multiplication and division, and also for
functions such as exponents, roots,
logarithms and trigonometry, but is not
normally used for addition or subtraction.
Though similar in name and appearance
to a standard ruler, the slide rule is not
ordinarily used for measuring length or
drawing straight lines.
The Slide Rule
Blaise Pascal’s Pascaline (1645)
This famous French philosopher and
mathematician invented the first digital
calculator to help his father with his work
collecting taxes.
He worked on it for three years between 1642
and 1645.
The device, called the Pascaline, resembled a
mechanical calculator of the 1940's. It could
add and subtract by the simple rotation of
dials on the machine’s face.
Blaise Pascal’s Pascaline (cont)
.
Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibnitz’s
Stepped Reckoner (1674)
Leibnitz’s Stepped Reckoner could not
only add and subtract, but multiply and
divide as well. Interesting thing about the
Stepped Reckoner is that Leibnitz’s
design was way ahead of his time.
A working model of the machine didn’t
appear till 1791, long after the inventor
was dead and gone.
Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibnitz’s
Stepped Reckoner
.
Charles Babbage (1791-1871) The Father
of Computers
Charles Babbage is recognized today as the
Father of Computers because his impressive
designs for the Difference Engine and
Analytical Engine foreshadowed the invention
of the modern electronic digital computer.
He also invented the cowcatcher,
dynamometer, standard railroad gauge,
uniform postal rates, occulting lights for
lighthouses, Greenwich time signals,
heliograph opthalmoscope.
The Difference engine & Analytical
engine
The Difference Engine was never fully built.
Babbage drew up the blueprints for it while still an
undergrad at Cambridge University in England.
But while it was in process of being manufactured,
he got a better idea and left this work unfinished in
favor of the Analytical Engine illustrated on the
next slide.
The Analytical Engine was eventually built
completely in the latter half of the 19th century, by
Georg and Edvard Schuetz as per Babbage’s
blueprints.
Charles Babbage’s Difference Engine
.
Charles Babbage’s Analytical Engine
.
Ada Lovelace
Babbage owes a great debt to Lady Augusta Ada,
Countess of Lovelace. Daughter of the famous
romantic poet, Lord Byron, she was a brilliant
mathematician who helped Babbage in his work.
Above all, she documented his work, which
Babbage never could bother to do.
As a result we know about Babbage at all. Lady
Augusta Ada also wrote programs to be run on
Babbage’s machines.
For this, she is recognized as the first computer
programmer.
Ada Lovelace
.
Electro-mechanical computers
Electricity was discovered long before it
was actually named as such. A one Sir
Thomas Browne is supposed to have
come up with the term “electricity”.
It was a while before electricity was used
to power computing machines. This
section tells that story.
Herman Hollerith and his
Census Tabulating Machine (1884)
Herman Hollerith worked as a statistician for the
U.S. Census Bureau in the 1880s and 1890s.
The U.S. Constitution requires a census count
every ten years so that the membership of the
House of Representatives will be proportional to
the population of each state.
This is always a moving target, hence the ten
year review of the current state of demographic
affairs. The 1880 census took seven years to
process.
Herman Hollerith (cont.)
Hollerith designed and built the Census
Counting Machine illustrated here and in the
next slide. Punched cards were used to
collect the census data and the cards were fed
into a sorting machine before being read by
the census counting machine which recorded
and tabulated the results.
Hollerith went on to found the company IBM
(International Business Machines) which is
present and successful to the present day.
The Census Tabulating Machine
The Harvard Mark I (1944) aka IBM’s
Automatic Sequence Controlled Calculator
(ASCC)
While a professor of Physics at Harvard, Howard
Aiken, illustrated above, was supported by IBM
to build the ASCC computer (Automatic
Sequence Controlled Calculator). The computer
had mechanical relays (switches) which flip-
flopped back and forth to represent mathematical
data.
It was huge (of course), weighting some 35 tons
with 500 miles of wiring. The guts of the
machine was comprised of IBM counting
machines.
Electronic digital computers
John Vincent Atanasoff’s contribution to
the history of computers is little known,
thanks to the preoccupations of his
university and the shenanigans of two
rival inventors of electronic digital
machines
Alan Turing 1912-1954
The story of modern electronic digital
computing should start with Alan Turing
who published a paper in 1936 On
Computable Numbers, with an application to
the Entscheidungsproblem.
The paper proved that a machine capable of
processing a stream of 1s and 0s according
to programmed instructions would be
capable of solving any problem that would
count as a 'definite method.'
Alan Turing (cont.)
As it happens, the set of problems
included in this definition is the universe
of mechanically solvable problems.
Hence, the Turing Machine is also known
as the Universal Machine, the theoretical
precursor to the electronic digital
computer which Atanasoff was soon to
invent.
John Vincent Atanasoff (1903-1995)
 Prof Atanasoff was convinced there had to be a way
of doing math mechanically and thus save his PhD
students at Iowa State College from wasting time on
math when they could be doing more interesting
work in Physics.
 The result was the design of his electronic digital
computer.
 Back at the lab, in the Spring of 1939, he hired
Clifford Berry, an bright electrical engineering
student, and together they invented the Atanasoff-
Berry Computer, the ABC. Within a year, the basic
machine was completed and a paper written
documenting its design.
 1939 The Atanasoff-Berry Computer
(ABC)
.

The ABC was the first electronic digital computer, invented

by John Vincent Atanasoff
1943 Bletchley Park’s Colossus
Another little known story in the history of
computers relates the work of the government
boffins in World War II Britain, Turing included.
Turing made a major contribution to the
development of a sophisticated computing
machine called the Colossus which was used to
help crack the codes of the German Enigma
Machine.
The story didn’t come out till the 1970s because
it was top secret, for obvious reasons.
 The Colossus - 1943
.

The Enigma
Machine

The Colossus
1946 The ENIAC
J. Presper Eckert and John Mauchly were
professors in the Moore School of Engineering
at the University of Pennsylvania. Mauchly
invited himself to Atanasoff’s home for a long
weekend in order to check out the ABC.
Atanasoff made him welcome, showed him his
machine, and gave him a copy of the paper
describing the workings of the machine that
already had been filed with the Iowa State
College’s patent lawyer
Eckert & Mauchly – The ENIAC
Mauchly returned to Pennsylvania and,
together with Eckert, designed and built the
ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator
and Computer) which was commissioned by
the U.S. Department of Defense and
delivered in 1946.
Eckert and Mauchly successfully filed for
the patent as inventors of the electronic
digital computer, ignoring Atanasoff’s work.
1946 The ENIAC
Some thirty years later, in 1972, this injustice
was rectified when Honeywell (for Atanasoff)
successfully challenged Sperry Rand (the
company that acquired Eckert and Mauchly’s
patent), and Atanasoff and Berry were duly
credited as being the inventors of the electronic
digital computer.
Mauchly died in 1980. Eckert died in 1995,
one week before the nonogenarian Atanasoff.
You might say that Atanasoff had the last laugh.
The ENIAC: Electronic Numerical
Integrator and Computer
Programming the ENIAC
The ENIAC was programmed by rewiring
the machine, instruction by instruction,
tedious work carried out mostly by women
working for the U.S. Ordnance Office. The
machine was intended for use in the
calculation of ballistics trajectories for the
big guns of World War II. It was ready a bit
late for that, but nonetheless was an
immensely significant achievement on
Eckert and Mauchly’s part
Programming the ENIAC – Cont.
 Overcoming the ENIACs Programming
Challenges
. Neumann
John Von

John Von Neumann came up with the

bright idea of using part of the computer’s
internal memory (called Primary Memory)
to “store” the program inside the computer
and have the computer go get the
instructions from its own memory, just as
we do with our human brain.
Generations of Computers
Definition of generation from
www.wikionary.org
Generation
All of the people born and living at about
the same time, regarded collectively.
 for example "one of his generation's
finest songwriters"
Synonyms (similar words): age, age
group, peer group
First Generation (1952 – 1958)
Awesome (big) in size
Controlled by thousands of vacuum tubes or valves
Consumed great amount of power that often resulted
in overheating and failure
The operators could not recognize whether the
breakdown was in the programming or in the
machine
Information was stored on punched cards as well as
on magnetic tapes
The language level used was machine language
which used numbers
First Generation (1952 – 1958) – Vacuum
tubes
Second Generation Computer (1959-
1964)
Development of assembly or symbolic
language for instructing (programming) the
computers
Development of high level languages such as
Fortran (1954) and Cobol (1959) allowed
programmers to give more attention to
solving problems as these were relatively
easy languages
Used transistors (used less power and did not
get so hot quickly)
Second Generation Computer (1959-
1964) - Transistor
Third Generation Computers (1965-
1970)
Used Integrated Circuit (IC), commonly
known as the silicon chip, which
revolutionized electronics
It later progressed to Large Scale
Integration (LSI), where few chips could
replace several hundred thousands of
transistors
Third Generation Computers (1965-1970)
– Integrated Circuits (IC)
Fourth Generation Computer (1971-present)

Uses microprocessor, a chip which contains

all the main electronic components of a
compound
It made possible to build computers to
enormous logical capacity and reliability,
more cheaply and in a very small space
Very Large Space Integration (VLSI) was
achieved - the process of creating integrated
circuits by combining thousands of transistors
into a single chip.
Fourth Generation Computer (1971-
present) - Microprocessors
What are 5th generation Computers?
Since the inception of first-generation computers in the
1940s, technological advancements have been taking place,
making it easier and quicker for users to carry out their
tasks. Now computers are used not only for official and
calculative jobs, but for enjoyment and entertainment
purposes too.
By keeping this in mind, advance research scientists are
planning to create fifth-generation computers that will work
under full artificial intelligence operations, requiring the
lowest possible human intelligence, and all tasks will be
performed by the computers automatically.
Intelligence – a definition
A very general mental capability that, among
other things, involves the ability to reason, plan,
solve problems, think abstractly, comprehend
complex ideas, learn quickly and learn from
experience.
It is not merely book learning, a narrow academic
skill, or test-taking smarts.
Rather, it reflects a broader and deeper capability
for comprehending our surroundings—"catching
on," "making sense" of things, or "figuring out"
what to do
5th generation and Artificial Intelligence
(AI)
Artificial intelligence (AI) is the
intelligence exhibited by machines or
software, and the branch of computer
science that develops machines and
software with intelligence
The field was founded on the claim that a
central property of humans, intelligence
can be so precisely described that it can
be replicated by a computer
History of Computers - Timeline
500 BC – the Chinese invented the Abacus,
considered to be the first computer device, which
can perform simple addition and subtraction
operations.
1617 – John Napier, a Scottish mathematician,
invented the NAPIER’S Bone – a table of
logarithms made of ivory
1630 – William Oughtred, an English
mathematician, invented the SLIDE RULE, a
device made of wood with movable scales
arranged to slide opposite each other
History of Computers – Timeline (cont.)
1642 – Blaise Pascal, a French mathematician,
invented the PASCALINE – the first mechanical
calculating machine
1694 – Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz, a German
mathematician. His machine, the LEIBNIZ
MACHINE, considered of a stepped cylinder that
could perform the four fundamental operations and
square root.
1801 – Joseph Marie Jacquard, a French weaver and
designer, devised the JACQUARD LOOM which used
hole-punched cards. This machine wove a variety of
patterns
History of Computers – Timeline (cont.)
1822 – Charles Babbage, an English mathematician and
also known to be the “Father of the Modern Computer”,
invented the DIFFERENCE MACHINE. This machine was
capable of computing mathematical tables and solving
polynomial equations
1833 – Charles Babbage also invented the ANALYTICAL
MACHINE designed to perform complex mathematical
calculations. This was considered to be the first general
purpose computer
1887 – Herman Hollerith, an American statistician and
founder of Tabulating Machine Company (now called
International Business Machine or IBM) invented the
CENSUS MACHINE
History of Computers – Timeline (cont.)
1892 – William Seward Burrough, an American
inventor, designed a key-driven machine that produced a
hardcopy. This was called ADDING/CALCULATING
MACHINE.
1944 – Burrough invented the MARK 1 or ASCC
(Automatic Sequence Controlled Calculator) a machine
containing more than 15,000 vacuum tubes some of
which are 3 feet tall
1945 – John Presper Eckert, Jr. and William Mauchly
from the University of Pennsylvania invented the
ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer)
that had the capacity of 5,000 computations per second
History of Computers – Timeline (cont.)
1948 – The IBM developed a more different design
than the ENIAC – the SSEC (Selective Sequence
Electronic Calculator)
1950 – Eckert Jr. and Mauchly again developed a
machine The UNIVAC 1 (Universal Automatic
Computer)which could perform 10,000 computations
per second. The IBM again developed a machine that
could perform 100,000 computations per second and
can store data internally. The machine was the IBM
704
1963 – Digital Equipment Corp. introduced the PDP-8,
regarded as the first successful minicomputer
History of Computers – Timeline (cont.)
1977 – Two young computer enthusiasts,
Steven Jobs and Steve Wozniak,
collaborated to create and build their Apple
II computer on a makeshift production line
in Job’s garage
1981 – IBM introduced its hat into the
personal computer ring with the
announcement of the IBM PC. It ran
Microsoft’s MS DOS as the operating
system
Classification of computers –
classification by purpose
General-Purpose Computers - A computer
that has the ability to store different
programs of instructions and thus to
perform a variety of operations.
Special-Purpose Computers - A computer
designed to perform one specific task.
Examples of special purpose computers
include computers designed to control
elevators, aircraft and satellite controllers
Classification of computers –
classification by type of data handled
Digital Computers – a machine that specializes in
counting of items that are distinct from one
another, e.g. Text, integers, Morse code
Analog Computers – machine that deals with
quantities that are continuous variable. This means
that no individual elements can be identified from
any other element, e.g. Light, voice, and video
Hybrid Computers – a machine that combines the
measuring capabilities of the analog computer and
the logical and control capabilities of the digital
computer
Examples of analog computers
The Kerrison Predictor was one of the first fully
automated anti-aircraft fire-control systems. The predictor
could aim a gun at an aircraft based on simple inputs like
the observed speed and the angle to the target.
An astrolabe is an elaborate inclinometer, historically
used by astronomers, navigators, and astrologers. Its
many uses include locating and predicting the positions of
the Sun, Moon, planets, and stars, determining local time
given local latitude and vice-versa, surveying,
triangulation, and to cast horoscopes.
In the Islamic world, it was also used to calculate the
Kiblah and to find the times for Salah, prayers
Kerrison’s predictor and an astrolabe
Classification according to capacity -
Microcomputers
Microcomputers, the smallest of the digital
computers, are single or multi-user personal
computers and include desktop computers,
workstations, laptops or notebooks, netbooks,
tablets and handheld devices.
Microcomputers are found in homes, businesses,
schools or any location with computing. They
may or may not be portable and may or may not
have wireless computing capability
Classification according to capacity -
Minicomputers
When one thinks of a "mini" computer
today, they may be refer to tiny, handheld
computing devices like PDAs.
In actuality, minicomputers are multi-user
computers less fast and less powerful than
a mainframe.
Classification according to capacity -
Mainframe computers
Mainframes are large, centralized
computers typically used for intensive,
critical business processing like order
processing or flight scheduling,
information storage and as high-capacity
network servers.
Classification according to capacity -
Supercomputers
A supercomputer is a mainframe optimized for speed
and processing power. Supercomputers can perform
quadrillions of instructions per second and are used for
extremely calculation-intensive functions such as
analyzing jet engine combustion, global weather
patterns and climate change and energy efficiency.
Supercomputers push scientific research forward by
allowing new and existing scientific models and
simulations to run at amazing speeds on extremely
large volumes of data.
Test your self
who developed the computer program called windows
(Charles Babbage, Steve jobs, bill gates, Herman
Hollerith)
who is known as the father of computers( Ada Lovelace,
Herman Hollerith, Charles Babbage, Blaise Pascal)
which generation of computers are we in now (5 th, 4th,
3rd, 2nd)
John Napier developed (the tabulating machine,
Napier’s bones, Napier’s abacus, apple computers)
the first calculating device is believed to be? (calculator,
abacus, analytical engine, computer)
Test your self
What is Ada Lovelace known for (her singing, the
abacus, the analytical engine, computer programming)
The second generation of computers used (transistors,
vacuum tubes, integrated circuits, microprocessor)
which technology looked like light bulbs (transistor,
integrated circuits, vacuum tube, microprocessor)
The first electronic computer was the(ENIAC, EDVAC,
Mark I)
what generation of computers used vacuum tubes (1 st,
2nd, 3rd, 4th)
Summary
Computer is derived from the verb compute which
means to calculate, figure out.
Like anything computing has a history, there is no
single individual who can be called the inventor of
the computer but there are key people and events
that contributed to where we are at the moment
The history of computing is further usually broken
down to generations, to categorize computers that
have similar characteristics
Computers can also vary in size and purpose and
this can also be used to classify them