Chapter 49

Nervous
Systems

Lecture Presentations by
Nicole Tunbridge and
© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.
Kathleen Fitzpatrick
Command and Control Center

 The human brain contains about 100 billion neurons,

organized into circuits more complex than the most
powerful supercomputers
 Powerful imaging techniques allow researchers to
monitor multiple areas of the brain while the subject
performs various tasks
 A recent advance uses expression of random
combinations of colored proteins in brain cells,
resulting in what is called a “brainbow”

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Figure 49.1

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Concept 49.1: Nervous systems consist of
circuits of neurons and supporting cells
 By the time of the Cambrian explosion more than
500 million years ago, specialized systems of
neurons had appeared that enable animals to sense
their environments and respond rapidly

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 The simplest animals with nervous systems, the
cnidarians, have interconnected neurons arranged in
nerve nets
 More complex animals have nerves, in which the
axons of multiple neurons are bundled together
 Nerves channel and organize information flow
through the nervous system

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 Bilaterally symmetrical animals exhibit cephalization,
the clustering of sensory organs at the front end of
the body
 The simplest such animals, flatworms, have a
central nervous system (CNS) consisting of a brain
and longitudinal nerve cords
 The peripheral nervous system (PNS) consists of
neurons carrying information into and out of the CNS

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 Annelids and arthropods have segmentally arranged
clusters of neurons called ganglia
 Nervous system organization usually correlates with
lifestyle
 Sessile molluscs (for example, clams and chitons)
have simple systems, whereas more complex
molluscs (for example, octopuses and squids) have
more sophisticated systems

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 In vertebrates
 The CNS is composed of the brain and spinal cord
 The PNS is composed of nerves and ganglia
 Region specialization is a hallmark of both systems

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Figure 49.2

Eyespot
Brain Brain
Radial
nerve Nerve
cords Ventral
Nerve nerve
ring Transverse cord
Nerve net nerve
Segmental
ganglia

(a) Hydra (cnidarian) (b) Sea star (echinoderm) (c) Planarian (flatworm) (d) Leech (annelid)

Brain
Ganglia
Brain
Ventral Anterior Spinal
Brain
nerve cord nerve ring cord Sensory
Longitudinal Ganglia (dorsal ganglia
nerve cords nerve
Segmental cord)
ganglia

(e) Insect (arthropod) (f) Chiton (mollusc) (g) Squid (mollusc)(h) Salamander
(vertebrate)

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Figure 49.2a

Radial
nerve
Nerve
ring
Nerve net

(a) Hydra (cnidarian) (b) Sea star (echinoderm)

Eyespot
Brain
Brain
Nerve
cords Ventral
Transverse nerve
nerve cord

Segmental
ganglia

(c) Planarian (flatworm) (d) Leech (annelid)

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Figure 49.2b

Brain Ganglia
Ventral Anterior
nerve cord nerve ring

Longitudinal
nerve cords
Segmental
ganglia

(e) Insect (arthropod) (f) Chiton (mollusc)

Brain

Brain Spinal
cord Sensory
(dorsal ganglia
Ganglia nerve
cord)

(g) Squid (mollusc) (h) Salamander (vertebrate)

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Glia

 Glial cells, or glia, have numerous functions to

nourish, support, and regulate neurons
 Embryonic radial glia form tracks along which newly
formed neurons migrate
 Astrocytes participate in the formation of the blood-
brain barrier, which restricts the entry of most
substances into the brain

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Figure 49.3

CNS PNS

VENTRICLE Neuron

Cilia

Capillary

Ependymal Astrocytes Oligodendrocytes Microglia Schwann

cells cells

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 Radial glial cells and astrocytes can both act as
stem cells
 Researchers are exploring approaches to using
neural stem cells to replace brain tissue that has
ceased to function normally

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Figure 49.4

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Organization of the Vertebrate Nervous System

 The CNS develops from the hollow dorsal nerve cord

 The cavity of the nerve cord gives rise to the narrow
central canal of the spinal cord and the ventricles of
the brain
 The canal and ventricles fill with cerebrospinal fluid,
which supplies the CNS with nutrients and hormones
and carries away wastes

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 The brain and spinal cord contain
 Gray matter, which consists of neuron cell bodies,
dendrites, and unmyelinated axons
 White matter, which consists of bundles of
myelinated axons

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Figure 49.5

Gray matter

White
matter

Ventricles

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Figure 49.6

Central
Brain
nervous Cranial
system Spinal nerves
(CNS) cord Peripheral
Ganglia
nervous
outside
system
CNS
(PNS)
Spinal
nerves

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 The spinal cord conveys information to and from the
brain and generates basic patterns of locomotion
 The spinal cord also produces reflexes
independently of the brain
 A reflex is the body’s automatic response to a
stimulus
 For example, a doctor uses a mallet to trigger a knee-
jerk reflex

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Figure 49.7
Cell body of
sensory neuron in
dorsal root ganglion Gray White
matter matter

Quadriceps
muscle
Spinal cord
(cross section)

Hamstring
muscle

Sensory neuron Motor neuron Interneuron

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The Peripheral Nervous System

 The PNS transmits information to and from the CNS

and regulates movement and the internal
environment
 In the PNS, afferent neurons transmit information to
the CNS, and efferent neurons transmit information
away from the CNS

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Figure 49.8

CENTRAL NERVOUS
SYSTEM
(information processing)

PERIPHERAL NERVOUS
SYSTEM
Afferent neurons Efferent neurons

Autonomic Motor
nervous system system
Sensory
receptors
Control of
skeletal muscles

Enteric
Internal Sympathetic Parasympathetic nervous
and external division division system
stimuli
Control of smooth muscles,
cardiac muscles, glands
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 The PNS has two efferent components: the motor
system and the autonomic nervous system
 The motor system carries signals to skeletal
muscles and can be voluntary
 The autonomic nervous system regulates smooth
and cardiac muscles and is generally involuntary
 The enteric nervous system exerts direct control
over the digestive tract, pancreas, and gallbladder

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 The autonomic nervous system has sympathetic and
parasympathetic divisions
 The sympathetic division regulates arousal and
energy generation (“fight-or-flight” response)
 The parasympathetic division has antagonistic
effects on target organs and promotes calming and a
return to “rest-and-digest” functions

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Figure 49.9

Parasympathetic division Sympathetic division

Constricts pupil of eye Dilates pupil of eye

Stimulates salivary Inhibits salivary

gland secretion gland secretion
Sympathetic
Constricts ganglia Relaxes bronchi in lungs
bronchi in lungs Cervical

Slows heart Accelerates heart

Stimulates activity of Inhibits activity of

stomach and intestines stomach and intestines
Thoracic
Stimulates activity Inhibits activity
of pancreas of pancreas

Stimulates glucose
Stimulates gallbladder release from liver;
inhibits gallbladder
Lumbar
Stimulates
adrenal medulla

Promotes emptying Inhibits emptying

of bladder of bladder
Sacral
Promotes erection Promotes ejaculation and
of genitalia vaginal contractions
Synapse
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Figure 49.9a

Parasympathetic division Sympathetic division

Constricts pupil of eye Dilates pupil of eye

Stimulates salivary Inhibits salivary

gland secretion gland secretion
Constricts
bronchi in lungs Cervical

Slows heart Sympathetic

ganglia
Stimulates activity of
stomach and intestines

Stimulates activity
of pancreas

Stimulates gallbladder

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Figure 49.9b

Parasympathetic division Sympathetic division

Sympathetic
Relaxes bronchi in lungs
ganglia

Accelerates heart

Inhibits activity of
stomach and intestines
Thoracic
Inhibits activity
of pancreas
Stimulates glucose
release from liver;
inhibits gallbladder
Lumbar
Stimulates
adrenal medulla
Promotes emptying Inhibits emptying
of bladder of bladder
Sacral
Promotes erection Promotes ejaculation and
of genitalia Synapse vaginal contractions

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Concept 49.2: The vertebrate brain is regionally
specialized
 Specific brain structures are particularly specialized
for diverse functions
 The vertebrate brain has three major regions: the
forebrain, midbrain, and hindbrain

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 The forebrain has activities including processing of
olfactory input, regulation of sleep, learning, and any
complex processing
 The midbrain coordinates routing of sensory input
 The hindbrain controls involuntary activities and
coordinates motor activities

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Figure 49.UN01

Forebrain Midbrain Hindbrain

Cerebellum

Olfactory
bulb
Cerebrum

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 Comparison of vertebrates shows that relative sizes
of particular brain regions vary
 These size differences reflect the relative importance
of the particular brain function
 Evolution has resulted in a close match between
structure and function

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Figure 49.10

Lamprey

ANCESTRAL Shark
VERTEBRATE
Ray-finned
fish
Amphibian

Crocodilian

Forebrain Bird
Midbrain
Hindbrain Mammal

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 The human brain has 100 billion neurons, which
make 100 trillion connections
 During embryonic development, the anterior neural
tube gives rise to the forebrain, midbrain, and
hindbrain

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Figure 49.11a

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 The midbrain and part of the hindbrain form the
brainstem, which joins with the spinal cord at the
base of the brain
 The rest of the hindbrain gives rise to the
cerebellum
 The forebrain divides into the diencephelon, which
forms endocrine tissues in the brain, and the
telencephalon, which becomes the cerebrum

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Figure 49.11b

Embryonic brain regions Brain structures in child and adult

Telencephalon Cerebrum (includes cerebral cortex, basal nuclei)

Forebrain
Diencephalon Diencephalon (thalamus, hypothalamus, epithalamus)

Midbrain Mesencephalon Midbrain (part of brainstem)

Metencephalon Pons (part of brainstem), cerebellum

Hindbrain
Myelencephalon Medulla oblongata (part of brainstem)

Mesencephalon Cerebrum Diencephalon

Metencephalon
Midbrain
Hindbrain Diencephalon Myelencephalon

Midbrain

Brainstem
Pons
Medulla
Spinal cord oblongata
Forebrain
Telencephalon
Cerebellum
Spinal cord
Embryo at 1 month Embryo at 5 weeks Child

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Figure 49.11ba
Embryonic brain regions

Telencephalon
Forebrain
Diencephalon

Midbrain Mesencephalon

Metencephalon
Hindbrain
Myelencephalon

Brain structures in child and adult

Cerebrum (includes cerebral cortex, basal nuclei)

Forebrain
Diencephalon (thalamus, hypothalamus, epithalamus)

Midbrain Midbrain (part of brainstem)

Pons (part of brainstem), cerebellum

Hindbrain
Medulla oblongata (part of brainstem)
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Figure 49.11bb

Mesencephalon
Metencephalon
Midbrain
Hindbrain Diencephalon Myelencephalon

Spinal
Forebrain cord
Telencephalon

Embryo at 1 month Embryo at 5 weeks

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Figure 49.11bc
Cerebrum Diencephalon

Midbrain

Brainstem
Pons
Medulla
oblongata

Cerebellum

Spinal cord
Child
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 The cerebrum controls skeletal muscle contraction
and is the center for learning, emotion, memory, and
perception
 The outer layer of the cerebrum is called the
cerebral cortex and is vital for perception, voluntary
movement, and learning
 A thick band of axons called the corpus callosum
enables the right and left cerebral cortices to
communicate

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 The cerebellum coordinates movement and balance
and helps in learning and remembering motor skills
 The diencephalon gives rise to the thalamus,
hypothalamus, and epithalamus
 The hypothalamus constitutes a control center that
includes the body’s thermostat and central biological
clock

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 The brainstem consists of the midbrain, the pons,
and the medulla oblongata (or medulla)
 The midbrain receives and integrates sensory
information and sends it to specific regions of the
brain
 A major function of the pons and medulla is to
transfer information between the PNS and the
midbrain and forebrain
 The medulla is also in control of several automatic
functions such as breathing, heart and blood vessel
activity, swallowing, vomiting, and digestion
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Figure 49.11c

Left cerebral Right cerebral

hemisphere hemisphere

Cerebral cortex

Corpus callosum

Cerebrum Basal nuclei

Cerebellum

Adult brain viewed from the rear

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Arousal and Sleep

 The brainstem and cerebrum control arousal and

sleep
 Sleep is an active state for the brain
 Sleep is essential for survival and may play a role in
the consolidation of learning and memory
 Arousal and sleep are controlled in part by the
reticular formation, a network formed mainly of
neurons in the midbrain and pons

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Figure 49.12

Eye Input from nerves

of ears
Reticular formation

Input from touch,

pain, and temperature
receptors

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 The neurons of the reticular formation control the
timing of sleep periods characterized by rapid eye
movements (REMs) and by vivid dreams
 Sleep is also regulated by the biological clock and
regions of the forebrain that regulate intensity and
duration

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 Some animals have adaptations that allow for
substantial activity during sleep
 Bottlenose dolphins can swim while sleeping
 EEG data suggest that in dolphins only one side of
the brain sleeps at a time

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Figure 49.13

Low-frequency waves characteristic of sleep

High-frequency waves characteristic of wakefulness

Location Time: 0 hours Time: 1 hour

Left
hemisphere

Right
hemisphere

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Biological Clock Regulation

 Cycles of sleep and wakefulness are examples of

circadian rhythms, daily cycles of biological activity
 Such rhythms rely on a biological clock, a
molecular mechanism that directs periodic gene
expression and cellular activity
 Biological clocks are typically synchronized to light
and dark cycles

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 In mammals, circadian rhythms are coordinated by a
group of neurons in the hypothalamus called the
suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN)
 The SCN acts as a pacemaker, synchronizing the
biological clock

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Emotions

 Generation and experience of emotions involve

many brain structures, including the amygdala,
hippocampus, and parts of the thalamus
 These structures are grouped as the limbic system

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Figure 49.14
Thalamus

Hypothalamus

Olfactory
bulbs
Hippocampus
Amygdala

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 The structure most important to the storage of
emotion in the memory is the amygdala, a mass of
nuclei near the base of the cerebrum
 Generating and experiencing emotion often require
interactions between different parts of the brain

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Functional Imaging of the Brain

 Brain structures are probed and analyzed with

functional imaging methods
 Positron-emission tomography (PET) enables a
display of metabolic activity through injection of
radioactive glucose
 Today, many studies rely on functional magnetic
resonance imaging (fMRI), in which brain activity is
detected through changes in local oxygen
concentration

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Figure 49.15

Nucleus accumbens Amygdala

Happy music Sad music

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Figure 49.15a

Nucleus accumbens

Happy music

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Figure 49.15b

Amygdala

Sad music

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 The range of applications for fMRI include
monitoring recovery from stroke, mapping
abnormalities in migraine headaches, and increasing
the effectiveness of brain surgery

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Concept 49.3: The cerebral cortex controls
voluntary movement and cognitive functions
 The cerebrum, the largest structure in the human
brain, is essential for language, cognition, memory,
consciousness, and awareness of our surroundings
 Four regions, or lobes (frontal, temporal, occipital,
and parietal), are landmarks for particular functions

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Figure 49.16

Motor cortex (control of Somatosensory cortex

skeletal muscles) (sense of touch)
Frontal lobe
Parietal lobe
Prefrontal cortex
(decision making, Sensory association
planning) cortex (integration of
sensory information)

Visual association
Broca’s area cortex (combining
(forming speech) images and
object recognition)
Temporal lobe
Occipital lobe
Auditory cortex (hearing)
Visual cortex (processing
visual stimuli and pattern
Wernicke’s area
recognition)
(comprehending language)
Cerebellum

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Information Processing

 The cerebral cortex receives input from sensory

organs and somatosensory receptors
 Somatosensory receptors provide information about
touch, pain, pressure, temperature, and the position
of muscles and limbs
 The thalamus directs different types of input to
distinct locations

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 Information received at the primary sensory areas is
passed to nearby association areas that process
particular features of the input
 Integrated sensory information passes to the
prefrontal cortex, which helps plan actions and
movements
 In the somatosensory cortex and motor cortex,
neurons are arranged according to the part of the
body that generates input or receives commands

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Figure 49.17

Frontal lobe Parietal lobe

Toes Genitalia

Lips
Jaw

Tongue Primary Primary

motor Abdominal somatosensory
cortex organs cortex

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Language and Speech

 Studies of brain activity have mapped areas

responsible for language and speech
 Patients with damage in Broca’s area in the frontal
lobe can understand language but cannot speak
 Damage to Wernicke’s area causes patients to be
unable to understand language, though they can still
speak

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Figure 49.18

Max

Hearing Seeing
words words

Min

Speaking Generating
words words

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Lateralization of Cortical Function

 The two hemispheres make distinct contributions to

brain function
 The left hemisphere is more adept at language,
math, logic, and processing of serial sequences
 The right hemisphere is stronger at facial and
pattern recognition, spatial relations, and nonverbal
thinking

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 The differences in hemisphere function are called
lateralization
 The two hemispheres work together by
communicating through the fibers of the corpus
callosum

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Frontal Lobe Function

 Frontal lobe damage may impair decision making

and emotional responses but leave intellect and
memory intact
 The frontal lobes have a substantial effect on
“executive functions”

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Figure 49.19

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Evolution of Cognition in Vertebrates

 Previous ideas that a highly convoluted neocortex is

required for advanced cognition may be incorrect
 The anatomical basis for sophisticated information
processing in birds (without a highly convoluted
neocortex) appears to be the clustering of nuclei in
the top or outer portion of the brain (pallium)

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Figure 49.20
Cerebrum
(including pallium)
Cerebellum

Thalamus Hindbrain
Midbrain
(a) Songbird brain

Cerebrum
(including cortex)

Thalamus

Midbrain

Hindbrain Cerebellum

(b) Human brain

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Concept 49.4: Changes in synaptic connections
underlie memory and learning
 Embryonic development of the nervous system
occurs in steps
 Regulated gene expression and signal transduction
determine where neurons form
 Then neurons compete for growth-supporting factors
in order to survive
 Only half the synapses that form during embryo
development survive into adulthood
 In the final phase, synapse elimination occurs

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Neuronal Plasticity

 Neuronal plasticity describes the ability of the

nervous system to be modified after birth
 Changes can strengthen or weaken signaling at a
synapse
 Autism, a developmental disorder, involves a
disruption in activity-dependent remodeling at
synapses
 Children affected with autism display impaired
communication and social interaction, as well as
stereotyped, repetitive behaviors

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Figure 49.21

N1 N1

N2 N2

(a) Connections between neurons are strengthened or

weakened in response to activity.

(b) If two synapses on the same postsynaptic cell are

often active at the same time, the strength of the
postsynaptic response may increase at both synapses.
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Memory and Learning

 Neuronal plasticity is essential to the formation of

memories
 Short-term memory is accessed via the
hippocampus
 In long-term memory, the links in the hippocampus
are replaced by connections in the cerebral cortex
 Some consolidation of memory is thought to occur
during sleep

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Long-Term Potentiation

 In the vertebrate brain, long-term potentiation

(LTP) involves a lasting increase in the strength of
synaptic transmission
 LTP involves a presynaptic neuron that releases the
neurotransmitter glutamate
 LTP involves two types of glutamate receptors on the
receiving cell
 The receptors on the postsynaptic membrane
change in response to a stimulus

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Figure 49.22

PRESYNAPTIC Ca2+
NEURON Na+

Glutamate Mg2+ 1

NMDA receptor
(open) NMDA 2
Stored 3
AMPA receptor
POSTSYNAPTIC
receptor (closed)
NEURON
(a) Synapse prior to long-term potentiation (LTP) (b) Establishing LTP

3
1

2 4 Action
potential
Depolarization
(c) Synapse exhibiting LTP

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Figure 49.22a

PRESYNAPTIC Ca2+
NEURON
Na+

Mg2+
Glutamate

NMDA
NMDA receptor
receptor
(open) Stored (closed)
POSTSYNAPTIC AMPA
NEURON receptor

(a) Synapse prior to long-term potentiation (LTP)

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Figure 49.22b

2
3

(b) Establishing LTP

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Figure 49.22c

3
1

2 4 Action
potential
Depolarization
(c) Synapse exhibiting LTP
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Concept 49.5: Many nervous system disorders
can be explained in molecular terms
 Disorders of the nervous system include
schizophrenia, depression, drug addiction,
Alzheimer’s disease, and Parkinson’s disease
 Genetic and environmental factors contribute to
diseases of the nervous system
 To distinguish between genetic and environmental
variables, scientists often carry out family studies

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Figure 49.23

50 Genes shared with relatives of

person with schizophrenia

Risk of developing schizophrenia (%)

12.5% (3rd-degree relative)
40 25% (2nd-degree relative)
50% (1st-degree relative)
100%
30

20

10

Child
Parent
Uncle/aunt

Grandchild
Individual,

Nephew/niece
First cousin

Half sibling

Full sibling

Fraternal twin
Identical twin
general population

Relationship to person with schizophrenia

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Schizophrenia

 About 1% of the world’s population suffers from

schizophrenia
 Schizophrenia is characterized by hallucinations,
delusions, and other symptoms
 Evidence suggests that schizophrenia affects
neuronal pathways that use dopamine as a
neurotransmitter
 Schizophrenia may also alter glutamate signaling

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Depression

 Two broad forms of depressive illness are known

 In major depressive disorder, patients have a
persistent lack of interest or pleasure in most
activities
 Bipolar disorder is characterized by manic (high-
mood) and depressive (low-mood) phases
 Treatments for these types of depression include
drugs that increase the activity of biogenic amines in
the brain

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The Brain’s Reward System and Drug Addiction

 The brain’s reward system rewards motivation with

pleasure
 Some drugs are addictive because they increase
activity of the brain’s reward system
 These drugs include cocaine, amphetamine, heroin,
alcohol, and tobacco
 Drug addiction is characterized by compulsive
consumption and an inability to control intake

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 Addictive drugs enhance the activity of the dopamine
pathway
 Drug addiction leads to long-lasting changes in the
reward circuitry that cause a craving for the drug
 It is hoped that insights gained by research in this
field will lead to better prevention and treatment of
drug addiction

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Figure 49.24
Nicotine
stimulates
dopamine-
releasing Inhibitory neuron
VTA neuron.

Opium and heroin

Dopamine- decrease activity
releasing of inhibitory
VTA neuron neuron.

Cocaine and
amphetamines
block removal
of dopamine
from synaptic
cleft.

Cerebral
neuron of Reward
reward system
pathway response
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Alzheimer’s Disease

 Alzheimer’s disease is a mental deterioration

(dementia) characterized by confusion and memory
loss
 The incidence of Alzheimer’s disease increases with
age
 It is associated with formation of neurofibrillary
tangles and amyloid plaques in the brain
 There is no cure for this disease, though some drugs
are effective at relieving symptoms

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Figure 49.25

Amyloid plaque Neurofibrillary tangle 20 µm

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Parkinson’s Disease

 Parkinson’s disease is a motor disorder caused by

death of dopamine-secreting neurons in the midbrain
 It is characterized by muscle tremors, flexed posture,
and a shuffling gait
 Most cases of Parkinson’s disease lack an
identifiable cause, although one form is known to
have a genetic basis

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 Parkinson’s disease can be treated but not cured
 A dopamine-related drug called L-dopa can reduce
the severity of Parkinson’s disease symptoms
 A potential cure for the disease may be the
implantation of dopamine-secreting neurons into the
brain
 This treatment is being studied

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Figure 49.UN03

Dopa
decarboxylase

L-dopa Dopamine

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Future Directions

 In 2014, the National Institutes of Health and other

U.S. government agencies launched a 12-year
project, called BRAIN (Brain Research through
Advancing Innovative Neurotechnologies)
 The objective is to
 Map brain circuits
 Measure activity within those circuits
 Understand how this activity is translated into thought
and behavior

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Figure 49.11d

Diencephalon
Thalamus
Pineal gland Brainstem
Hypothalamus
Midbrain
Pituitary gland
Pons

Medulla
oblongata
Spinal cord
Adult brain viewed from the side
(front at left)

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Figure 49.UN02
Wild-type hamster τ hamster
Wild-type hamster with τ hamster with SCN
SCN from τ hamster from wild-type hamster

Circadian cycle period (hours)

24

23

22

21

20

19
Before After surgery
procedures and transplant
Data from M. R. Ralph et al., Transplanted suprachiasmatic nucleus
determines circadian period, Science 247:975–978 (1990).
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Figure 49.UN04

Brain

Spinal
cord Sensory
(dorsal ganglia
nerve
cord)
Nerve net

Hydra (cnidarian) Salamander (vertebrate)

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Figure 49.UN05

CNS PNS

VENTRICLE Astrocyte
Ependy-
mal Oligodendrocyte
cell
Cilia

Schwann
cells

Capillary Neuron Microglial cell

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Figure 49.UN06

Cerebral
cortex

Cerebrum
Forebrain Thalamus
Hypothalamus
Pituitary gland

Midbrain
Pons Spinal
Medulla cord
Hindbrain
oblongata
Cerebellum

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Figure 49.UN07

© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.