Instruction Codes

Every different processor type has its own design (different registers, buses, microoperations, machine instructions, etc) Modern processor is a very complex device It contains
Many registers Multiple arithmetic units, for both integer and floating point calculations The ability to pipeline several consecutive instructions to speed execution Etc.

However, to understand how processors work, we will start with a simplified processor model This is similar to what real processors were like ~25 years ago M. Morris Mano introduces a simple processor model he calls the Basic Computer We will use this to introduce processor organization and the relationship of the RTL model to the higher level computer processor

THE BASIC COMPUTER

The Basic Computer has two components, a processor and memory The memory has 4096 words in it
4096 = 212, so it takes 12 bits to select a word in RAM CPU memory
0

Each word is 16 bits long

15

4095

Instruction codes

INSTRUCTIONS
Program A sequence of (machine) instructions (Machine) Instruction A group of bits that tell the computer to perform a specific operation (a sequence of micro-operation) The instructions of a program, along with any needed data are stored in memory The CPU reads the next instruction from memory It is placed in an Instruction Register (IR) Control circuitry in control unit then translates the instruction into the sequence of microoperations necessary to implement it

Instruction codes

INSTRUCTION FORMAT
A computer instruction is often divided into two parts An opcode (Operation Code) that specifies the operation for that instruction An address that specifies the registers and/or locations in memory to use for that operation In the Basic Computer, since the memory contains 4096 (= 212) words, we needs 12 bit to specify which memory address this instruction will use In the Basic Computer, bit 15 of the instruction specifies the addressing mode (0: direct addressing, 1: indirect addressing) Since the memory words, and hence the instructions, are 16 bits long, that leaves 3 bits for the instructions opcode
15 14 12 11 Address I Opcode Addressing mode 0

Instruction codes

ADDRESSING MODES
The address field of an instruction can represent either
Direct address: the address in memory of the data to use (the address of the operand), or Indirect address: the address in memory of the address in memory of the data to use
Direct addressing
22 0 ADD 457 35 300 457 Operand 1350 Operand

Indirect addressing
1 ADD 1350 300

+
AC

+
AC

Instruction codes

PROCESSOR REGISTERS
A processor has many registers to hold instructions, addresses, data, etc The processor has a register, the Program Counter (PC) that holds the memory address of the next instruction to get Since the memory in the Basic Computer only has 4096 locations, the PC only needs 12 bits In a direct or indirect addressing, the processor needs to keep track of what locations in memory it is addressing: The Address Register (AR) is used for this The AR is a 12 bit register in the Basic Computer When an operand is found, using either direct or indirect addressing, it is placed in the Data Register (DR). The processor then uses this value as data for its operation The Basic Computer has a single general purpose register the Accumulator (AC)

Instruction codes

PROCESSOR REGISTERS
The significance of a general purpose register is that it can be referred to in instructions e.g. load AC with the contents of a specific memory location; store the contents of AC into a specified memory location Often a processor will need a scratch register to store intermediate results or other temporary data; in the Basic Computer this is the Temporary Register (TR) The Basic Computer uses a very simple model of input/output (I/O) operations Input devices are considered to send 8 bits of character data to the processor The processor can send 8 bits of character data to output devices The Input Register (INPR) holds an 8 bit character gotten from an input device The Output Register (OUTR) holds an 8 bit character to be send to an output device

COMPUTER REGISTERS
Registers in the Basic Computer
11 0

Registers

PC
11 0

Memory 4096 x 16

AR
15 0

IR
15 0 15 0

CPU DR
7 0 15 0

TR
7 0

OUTR

INPR

AC

List of BC Registers
DR AR AC IR PC TR INPR OUTR 16 12 16 16 12 16 8 8 Data Register Address Register Accumulator Instruction Register Program Counter Temporary Register Input Register Output Register Holds memory operand Holds address for memory Processor register Holds instruction code Holds address of instruction Holds temporary data Holds input character Holds output character

Registers

COMMON BUS SYSTEM

The registers in the Basic Computer are connected using a bus This gives a savings in circuitry over complete connections between registers

Registers

COMMON BUS SYSTEM

S2 S1 S0 Bus 7 Address 1 Memory unit 4096 x 16 Write Read

AR
LD INR CLR

PC
LD INR CLR

DR
LD INR CLR E ALU

AC
LD INR CLR

INPR IR
LD 5 6

TR
LD INR CLR

OUTR
LD 16-bit common bus

Clock

Registers

COMMON BUS SYSTEM

Read Memory 4096 x 16 Write Address

INPR ALU

AC
L I L I L I C C C L

DR

IR

L I

PC AR
L I 7 1 C 2 3 4 5

TR OUTR
LD

16-bit Common Bus

S0 S1 S2

Registers

COMMON BUS SYSTEM

Three control lines, S2, S1, and S0 control which register the bus selects as its input
S2 S1 S0
0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1

Register
x AR PC DR AC IR TR Memory

Either one of the registers will have its load signal activated, or the memory will have its read signal activated Will determine where the data from the bus gets loaded The 12-bit registers, AR and PC, have 0s loaded onto the bus in the high order 4 bit positions When the 8-bit register OUTR is loaded from the bus, the data comes from the low order 8 bits on the bus

Instructions

COMPUTER INSTRUCTIONS
Basic Computer Instruction Format
Memory-Reference Instructions
15 I 14 12 11 Opcode Address

(OP-code = 000 ~ 110)

0

Register-Reference Instructions
15 0 1 1 12 11 Register operation 1

(OP-code = 111, I = 0)
0

Input-Output Instructions
15 1 1 12 11 1 1 I/O operation

(OP-code =111, I = 1)
0

Instructions

BASIC COMPUTER INSTRUCTIONS

Symbol AND ADD LDA STA BUN BSA ISZ CLA CLE CMA CME CIR CIL INC SPA SNA SZA SZE HLT INP OUT SKI SKO ION IOF Hex Code I=0 I=1 0xxx 8xxx 1xxx 9xxx 2xxx Axxx 3xxx Bxxx 4xxx Cxxx 5xxx Dxxx 6xxx Exxx 7800 7400 7200 7100 7080 7040 7020 7010 7008 7004 7002 7001 F800 F400 F200 F100 F080 F040 Description AND memory word to AC Add memory word to AC Load AC from memory Store content of AC into memory Branch unconditionally Branch and save return address Increment and skip if zero Clear AC Clear E Complement AC Complement E Circulate right AC and E Circulate left AC and E Increment AC Skip next instr. if AC is positive Skip next instr. if AC is negative Skip next instr. if AC is zero Skip next instr. if E is zero Halt computer Input character to AC Output character from AC Skip on input flag Skip on output flag Interrupt on Interrupt off

Instructions

INSTRUCTION SET COMPLETENESS

A computer should have a set of instructions so that the user can construct machine language programs to evaluate any function that is known to be computable. Instruction Types
Functional Instructions - Arithmetic, logic, and shift instructions - ADD, CMA, INC, CIR, CIL, AND, CLA Transfer Instructions - Data transfers between the main memory and the processor registers - LDA, STA Control Instructions - Program sequencing and control - BUN, BSA, ISZ Input/Output Instructions - Input and output - INP, OUT

Instruction codes

CONTROL UNIT
Control unit (CU) of a processor translates from machine instructions to the control signals for the microoperations that implement them Control units are implemented in one of two ways Hardwired Control CU is made up of sequential and combinational circuits to generate the control signals Microprogrammed Control A control memory on the processor contains microprograms that activate the necessary control signals We will consider a hardwired implementation of the control unit for the Basic Computer

Timing and control

TIMING AND CONTROL

Control unit of Basic Computer
15 Instruction register (IR) 14 13 12 11 - 0 Other inputs

3x8 decoder 7 6543 210 I D0 D7 T15 T0 15 14 . . . . 2 1 0 4 x 16 decoder 4-bit sequence counter (SC) Increment (INR) Clear (CLR) Clock Combinational Control logic Control signals

Timing and control

TIMING SIGNALS
- Generated by 4-bit sequence counter and 4v16 decoder - The SC can be incremented or cleared. - Example: T0, T1, T2, T3, T4, T0, T1, . . . Assume: At time T4, SC is cleared to 0 if decoder output D3 is active.
T0 Clock

D3T4: SC n 0 T1

T2

T3

T4

T0

T0 T1

T2

T3 T4

D3

CLR SC

INSTRUCTION CYCLE
In Basic Computer, a machine instruction is executed in the following cycle: 1. Fetch an instruction from memory 2. Decode the instruction 3. Read the effective address from memory if the instruction has an indirect address 4. Execute the instruction After an instruction is executed, the cycle starts again at step 1, for the next instruction Note: Every different processor has its own (different) instruction cycle

Instruction Cycle

FETCH and DECODE

Fetch and Decode
T1 T0

T0: AR nPC (S0S1S2=010, T0=1) T1: IR n M [AR], PC n PC + 1 (S0S1S2=111, T1=1) T2: D0, . . . , D7 n Decode IR(12-14), AR n IR(0-11), I n IR(15)
S2 S1 Bus S0

Memory unit
Address Read

AR
LD

PC
INR

IR
LD Common bus Clock

Instrction Cycle

DETERMINE THE TYPE OF INSTRUCTION

Start SC n  AR n PC T0 T1 IR n M[AR], PC n PC + 1 T2 Decode Opcode in IR(12-14), AR n IR(0-11), I n IR(15) (Register or I/O) = 1 (I/O) = 1 T3 Execute input-output instruction SC n 0 = 0 (Memory-reference) (indirect) = 1 T3 Execute register-reference instruction SC n 0 T3 AR n M[AR] = 0 (direct) I T3 Nothing T4

D7

= 0 (register)

Execute memory-reference instruction SC n 0

D'7IT3: D'7I'T3: D7I'T3: D7IT3:

AR nM[AR] Nothing Execute a register-reference instr. Execute an input-output instr.

Instruction Cycle

REGISTER REFERENCE INSTRUCTIONS

Register Reference Instructions are identified when - D7 = 1, I = 0 - Register Ref. Instr. is specified in b0 ~ b11 of IR - Execution starts with timing signal T3 r = D7 IdT3 => Register Reference Instruction Bi = IR(i) , i=0,1,2,...,11 CLA CLE CMA CME CIR CIL INC SPA SNA SZA SZE HLT r: rB11: rB10: rB9: rB8: rB7: rB6: rB5: rB4: rB3: rB2: rB1: rB0: SC n 0 AC n 0 En0 AC n AC E n E AC n shr AC, AC(15) n E, E n AC(0) AC n shl AC, AC(0) n E, E n AC(15) AC n AC + 1 if (AC(15) = 0) then (PC n PC+1) if (AC(15) = 1) then (PC n PC+1) if (AC = 0) then (PC n PC+1) if (E = 0) then (PC n PC+1) S n 0 (S is a start-stop flip-flop)

MR Instructions

MEMORY REFERENCE INSTRUCTIONS

Symbol Operation Decoder Symbolic Description

AND ADD LDA STA BUN BSA ISZ

D0 D1 D2 D3 D4 D5 D6

AC n AC M[AR] AC n AC + M[AR], E n Cout AC n M[AR] M[AR] n AC PC n AR M[AR] n PC, PC n AR + 1 M[AR] n M[AR] + 1, if M[AR] + 1 = 0 then PC n PC+1

- The effective address of the instruction is in AR and was placed there during timing signal T2 when I = 0, or during timing signal T3 when I = 1 - Memory cycle is assumed to be short enough to complete in a CPU cycle - The execution of MR instruction starts with T4 AND to AC D0T4: D0T5: ADD to AC D1T4: D1T5: DR n M[AR] AC n AC DR, SC n 0 DR n M[AR] AC n AC + DR, E n Cout, SC n 0 Read operand AND with AC Read operand Add to AC and store carry in E

MEMORY REFERENCE INSTRUCTIONS

LDA: Load to AC D2T4: DR n M[AR] D2T5: AC n DR, SC n 0 STA: Store AC D3T4: M[AR] n AC, SC n 0 BUN: Branch Unconditionally D4T4: PC n AR, SC n 0 BSA: Branch and Save Return Address M[AR] n PC, PC n AR + 1
Memory, PC, AR at time T4 20 PC = 21 0 BSA 135 Memory, PC after execution 20 21 0 BSA 135 Next instruction

Next instruction

AR = 135 136 Subroutine

135 PC = 136

21 Subroutine

BUN Memory

135

BUN Memory

135

MR Instructions

MEMORY REFERENCE INSTRUCTIONS

BSA: D5T4: M[AR] n PC, AR n AR + 1 D5T5: PC n AR, SC n 0 ISZ: Increment and Skip-if-Zero D6T4: DR n M[AR] D6T5: DR n DR + 1 D6T4: M[AR] n DR, if (DR = 0) then (PC n PC + 1), SC n 0

MR Instructions

FLOWCHART FOR MEMORY REFERENCE INSTRUCTIONS

Memory-reference instruction
AND D0T 4 DR n M[AR] ADD D1T 4 DR n M[AR] LDA D2T 4 DR n M[AR] D2T 5 AC n DR SC n 0 STA D 3T 4 M[AR] n AC SC n 0

D0T 5 D1T 5 AC n AC DR AC n AC + DR SC n 0 E n Cout SC n 0 BUN BSA

ISZ

D4T 4 D5T 4 D6T 4 PC n AR M[AR] n PC DR n M[AR] SC n 0 AR n AR + 1 D5T 5 PC n AR SC n 0 D6T 5 DR n DR + 1 D6T 6 M[AR] n DR If (DR = 0) then (PC n PC + 1) SC n 0

I/O and Interrupt

INPUT-OUTPUT AND INTERRUPT

A Terminal with a keyboard and a Printer Input-Output Configuration
Input-output terminal Printer Serial communication interface Receiver interface Computer registers and flip-flops OUTR FGO

AC Keyboard Transmitter interface INPR FGI

INPR OUTR FGI FGO IEN

Input register - 8 bits Output register - 8 bits Input flag - 1 bit Output flag - 1 bit Interrupt enable - 1 bit

Serial Communications Path Parallel Communications Path

- The terminal sends and receives serial information - The serial info. from the keyboard is shifted into INPR - The serial info. for the printer is stored in the OUTR - INPR and OUTR communicate with the terminal serially and with the AC in parallel. - The flags are needed to synchronize the timing difference between I/O device and the computer

I/O and Interrupt

PROGRAM CONTROLLED DATA TRANSFER

-- CPU -/* Input */ /* Initially FGI = 0 */ loop: If FGI = 0 goto loop AC n INPR, FGI n 0 /* Output */ /* Initially FGO = 1 */ loop: If FGO = 0 goto loop OUTR n AC, FGO n 0 FGI=0 Start Input FGI n 0 yes FGI=0 no AC n INPR yes More Character no END yes -- I/O Device -loop: If FGI = 1 goto loop INPR n new data, FGI n 1 loop: If FGO = 1 goto loop consume OUTR, FGO n 1 FGO=1 Start Output AC n Data FGO=0 no OUTR n AC FGO n 0 yes More Character no END

INPUT-OUTPUT INSTRUCTIONS
D7IT3 = p IR(i) = Bi, i = 6, , 11 p: pB11: pB10: pB9: pB8: pB7: pB6: SC n 0 AC(0-7) n INPR, FGI n 0 OUTR n AC(0-7), FGO n 0 if(FGI = 1) then (PC n PC + 1) if(FGO = 1) then (PC n PC + 1) IEN n 1 IEN n 0 Clear SC Input char. to AC Output char. from AC Skip on input flag Skip on output flag Interrupt enable on Interrupt enable off

INP OUT SKI SKO ION IOF

I/O and Interrupt

PROGRAM-CONTROLLED INPUT/OUTPUT
Program-controlled I/O - Continuous CPU involvement I/O takes valuable CPU time - CPU slowed down to I/O speed - Simple - Least hardware

Input
LOOP, SKI DEV BUN LOOP INP DEV

Output
LOOP, LOP, LDA SKO BUN OUT DATA DEV LOP DEV

INTERRUPT INITIATED INPUT/OUTPUT

- Open communication only when some data has to be passed --> interrupt. - The I/O interface, instead of the CPU, monitors the I/O device. - When the interface founds that the I/O device is ready for data transfer, it generates an interrupt request to the CPU - Upon detecting an interrupt, the CPU stops momentarily the task it is doing, branches to the service routine to process the data transfer, and then returns to the task it was performing.

* IEN (Interrupt-enable flip-flop) - can be set and cleared by instructions - when cleared, the computer cannot be interrupted

I/O and Interrupt

FLOWCHART FOR INTERRUPT CYCLE R = Interrupt f/f

Instruction cycle =0 R =1 Interrupt cycle Fetch and decode instructions =0 Branch to location 1 PC n 1 Store return address in location 0 M[0] n PC

Execute instructions =1

IEN =1 FGI =0 FGO =0

=1 Rn1

IEN n 0 Rn0

- The interrupt cycle is a HW implementation of a branch and save return address operation. - At the beginning of the next instruction cycle, the instruction that is read from memory is in address 1. - At memory address 1, the programmer must store a branch instruction that sends the control to an interrupt service routine - The instruction that returns the control to the original program is "indirect BUN 0"

REGISTER TRANSFER OPERATIONS IN INTERRUPT CYCLE

Memory Before interrupt 0 1 255 PC = 256 1120 0 BUN 1120 After interrupt cycle 0 PC = 1 0 255 256 1120 256 BUN 1120 Main Program I/O Program 0 1 BUN 0

I/O and Interrupt

Main Program I/O Program 1 BUN

Register Transfer Statements for Interrupt Cycle - R F/F n 1 if IEN (FGI + FGO)T0dT1dT2d T0dT1dT2d (IEN)(FGI + FGO): R n 1 - The fetch and decode phases of the instruction cycle must be modified Replace T0, T1, T2 with R'T0, R'T1, R'T2 - The interrupt cycle : RT0: AR n 0, TR n PC RT1: M[AR] n TR, PC n 0 RT2: PC n PC + 1, IEN n 0, R n 0, SC n 0

I/O and Interrupt

FURTHER QUESTIONS ON INTERRUPT

How can the CPU recognize the device requesting an interrupt ? Since different devices are likely to require different interrupt service routines, how can the CPU obtain the starting address of the appropriate routine in each case ? Should any device be allowed to interrupt the CPU while another interrupt is being serviced ? How can the situation be handled when two or more interrupt requests occur simultaneously ?