Analog-To Digital Conversion: Comsats University of Sciences and Technology
Analog-To Digital Conversion: Comsats University of Sciences and Technology
Analog-to Digital
Conversion
29,OCT 2016
Analog-to Digital Conversion
Analog-to-digital conversion is an electronic process in which a continuously variable (analog)
signal is changed, into a multi- level (digital) signal.
The input to an analog-to-digital converter (ADC) consists of a voltage that varies among a
theoretically infinite number of values. Examples are sine waves, the waveforms representing
human speech, and the signals from a conventional television camera. The output of the ADC, in
contrast, has defined levels or states. The number of states is almost always a power of two -- that
is, 2, 4, 8, 16, etc. The simplest digital signals have only two states, and are called binary. All
whole numbers can be represented in binary form as strings of ones and zeros.
CONVERSION TECHNIQUES:
There are two techniques.
Pulse code modulation.
Delta modulation.
SAMPLING:
Sampling is the process of reading the values of the filtered analogue signal at discrete time
intervals (i.e. at a constant sampling frequency, called the sampling frequency). A scientist called
Harry Nyquist discovered that the original analogue signal could be reconstructed if enough
samples were taken. He found that if the sampling frequency is at least twice the highest frequency
of the input analogue signal, the signal could be reconstructed using a low-pass filter at the
destination.
There are three sampling methods.
1) Ideal sampling
2) Natural sampling
3) Flat-top
IDEAL SAMPLING:
Impulse (Ideal) sampling can be performed by multiplying input signal with impulse train 'T'. The
amplitude of impulse changes with respect to amplitude of input signal. You cannot use this
practically because pulse width cannot be zero and the generation of impulse train is not possible
practically.
NATURAL SAMPLING:
Natural sampling is similar to impulse sampling, except the impulse train is replaced by pulse train
of period T. i.e. you multiply input signal to pulse train
FLAT-TOP:
During transmission, noise is introduced at top of the transmission pulse which can be easily
removed if the pulse is in the form of flat top. Here, the top of the samples are flat i.e. they have
constant amplitude. Hence, it is called as flat top sampling or practical sampling.
Sampling Rate:
According to the Nyquist theorem, to reproduce the original analog signal, one necessary condition
is that the sampling rate be at least twice the highest frequency in the original signals.
QUANTIZATION LEVELS:
If the amplitude of a signal fluctuates between two values only, we need only two levels: if the
signal like voice has many amplitude values, we need more quantization levels .In audio digitizing,
level is normally chosen to be 256, in video it is normally thousands.
QUANTIZATION ERROR:
The input values to the quantizer are the real values, the output values are the approximated
values .The output values are chosen to be the middle value in the zone .If the input value is also
at the middle of the zone, there is no quantization error; otherwise there is an error .The
quantization error changes the signal to noise ratio of the signal, which in turn reduces the upper
limit capacity according to Shannon.
UNIFORM VS NON-UNIFORM QUANTIZATION:
For many applications, the distribution of the instantaneous amplitude in the analog signal is not
uniform. Changes in amplitude often occur more frequently in the lower amplitudes than in the
higher ones. For these types of application it is better to use non-uniform zones.
Non uniform quantization can also be achieved by using a process called companding and
expanding. Companding means reducing the instantaneous voltage amplitude for large values.
While expanding is the opposite process.
ENCODING:
The last step in PCM is encoding .After each sample is quantized and the number of Bits
per sample is decided, each sample can be changed to an nb-bit code word. Note that the number of
bits for each sample is determined from the number of quantized levels. If the number of
Components of PCM
decoder
PCM Bandwidth:
The minimum bandwidth of a line-encoded signal is Bmin=cx N*(1/r).We substitute the value of N in this
formula
This mean the minimum bandwidth of the digital signal is nb times greater than the bandwidth of the analog
signal.
DEMODULATOR:
The demodulator takes the digital data and using the staircase maker and the delay unit, creates the
analog signal .The created analog signal however need to pass through a low-pass filter for
smoothing.
ADAPTIVE
A better performance can be achieved if the value of delta is not fixed.In adaptive delta
DM:
modulation
,the value of delta changes according to the amplitude of the analog signal.
QUANTIZATION ERROR:
It is obvious that DM is not perfect.Quantization error is always introduced in the process.The
quantization error of DM ,however is much less than that for PCM.