Syntax and Sentence Types

Or, writing with style!

Syntax
Syntax is a field of linguistics that deals with the
arrangement of words, phrases, and clauses.

Where words, phrases, and clauses appear in a

sentence – or how they’re arranged and ordered –
depends on various factors including grammatical
and syntactic rules and conventions, societal and
cultural conventions, rhetorical contexts, and
stylistic choices, among other factors.
Where does “meaning” in a
sentence come from?
Meaning in written discourse is dynamic, not static.

Meaning is not fixed, but rather, constantly evolving due

to various factors such as culture, gender, race, age, genre,
media, style, etc.

For example, the meaning I derive from a sentence may

not be what the author intended or what another reader
interpreted. Does that make anyone wrong? No. It just
means we have to be open to the richness of language.
Where does “meaning” in a
sentence come from?
Meaning in written discourse emerges from
various sources:

 The author
 The text itself
 The reader
 Culture
 Society (as in other people beyond the author and
reader such as those in discourse communities)
Where does “meaning” in a
sentence come from?
 Meaning also is delivered in…

 Words – Remember, words don’t have objective meanings;

people give them subjective meanings.

 Syntax – How the words, phrases, and clauses are arranged can
place different points of emphasis on different elements of a
sentence and ultimately alter how readers interpret that sentence.

 Sentence structure, form, and style – Often, when we choose a

certain sentence type, we’re communicating another layer of
meaning to readers. That other layer of meaning is known as
“meta-discourse”.
Where does “meaning” in a
sentence come from?
So, for example, the words I choose, the way I
arrange them, the types of sentences I use, etc…
they all communicate meaning to my readers just
as the actual words do.

This is called meta-discourse or the additional

meanings embedded in language that go beyond
just the words’ semantic meanings.
Where does “meaning” in a
sentence come from?
For example, I write to John, “Your son is really burning the midnight
oil.”

The meaning of those words suggests that I think John’s son is staying
out too late, possibly partying too much.

However, by choosing a euphemism (burning the midnight oil), I am

also essentially telling John that I don’t think he can handle that
message if I said it bluntly, perhaps because I think he’s too sensitive
about his parenting style, so I slipped my message into a euphemism.

In essence, I am saying as much about John as I am about his son.

Writing diverse sentences
The goal of this PowerPoint is to expose you to a variety of
sentence types to help you develop your voice and style; add
variety, spice, and flavor to your writing; and diversify the
meanings of your messages, ideas, and prose.

Using different types of sentences in your prose, and more

importantly, knowing when and how to use different sentence
types is by far one of the characteristics of an advanced writer.

Think of sentence types as tools. The more you have in your

toolbox, the more likely you’ll be able to complete the job.
Writing diverse sentences
And as you review this PowerPoint, please
note the role that syntax plays in sentence
development.

Where a word, phrase, or clause appears, is

repeated, is deleted, or is added is critical in
changing the sentence’s meaning.
Declarative sentences
These are sentences that are facts or
opinions. They declare or state factual
information or opinions.

Many sentences found in written discourse

are declarative sentences.
Interrogative sentences
These are sentences that are questions.

Questions are good to use in your prose because they

engage readers and help set up your argument or
exposition.

However, you should make sure you…

 Answer the question;
 Write the question clearly;
 Ask a thought-provoking question; and
 Use them sparingly.
Rhetorical questions
These are questions focused on how the respondent or reader
answers the question.

Typically, rhetorical questions are highly provocative and

don’t have an easy answer. Often, they can be answered in
numerous ways. Answering these types of questions usually
requires thought, composition, analysis, and even research.

For example…
 If you know the whole truth, but only report half the
truth, is your half-truth a lie?
Imperative sentences
These sentences are commands.

The subject of an imperative sentence is the implied “you”.

Imperative sentences are often used, for example, in

instructions.

Examples –
 Shut the door.
 Close the window.
 Bring your textbooks to class tomorrow.
Exclamatory sentences
These are essentially interjections or short
utterances full of emotion that end in an
exclamation mark.

They should be used sparingly, if at all, in

professional or academic writing because they
bring more attention to yourself, as a writer, than
they do to your ideas, explanation, message, or
argument.
Simple sentences
Simple sentences don’t have simple meanings, but
instead, contain only one clause.

Therefore, a simple sentence may be extraordinarily

complicated and sophisticated in meaning, but what
makes it “simple” is that it contains one main clause.

Simple sentences may be very short or very long.

Length doesn’t determine whether a sentence is
simple.
Simple sentences - examples
I cried.

Nietzsche said, “God is dead”.

The book Environmental Policy: New Directions for

the Twenty-First Century contains articles about
global warming, China, environmental security, the
Supreme Court, presidential powers, pollution,
natural resource management, national parks, and the
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA).
Simple sentences
These sentences can be effective when…

 Starting a large chunk or unit of prose such as a

paragraph;

 Writing a thesis statement or topic sentence;

 Following longer, more complex and dense

sentences.
Compound sentences
A compound sentence contains two or more
main clauses combined by a comma and
coordinating conjunction.

Compound sentences don’t contain any

dependent clauses.
Compound sentences -
examples
John walked five miles in the woods today,
but his daughter, Jane, walked seven miles.

Her son wants an Xbox for Christmas, her

daughter wants a new bike, and her husband
wants new fishing reels.

The cat purred, so the dog barked.

Coordination
Compound sentences can be effective when
using coordination, which means the two
main clauses are equally important.

Unlike in subordination, where one clause is

more important than the other, in
coordination, both clauses carry equal value
or importance.
Complex sentences
A complex sentence includes one main
clause and at least one dependent clause of
any kind.

Remember, there are three types of

dependent clauses: relative/adjective
clauses; subordinate/adverb clauses; and
noun clauses.
Complex sentences – examples
Although Benjamin prefers horror movies, Isabella
prefers animated films.

The truck made a loud noise as it roared down the

highway.

Before we ate dinner, we played a game of basketball.

You tell her your feelings if you want her to stay.

Subordination
Complex sentences are effective when using subordination,
which means the two clauses are not equal. The main
clause is the main point the writer is communicating, while
the subordinate clause carries the less important point.

Unlike in coordination, where both clauses are equally

important, in subordination, one clause – the main clause –
is primary.

The previous four sentences are good examples of

subordination.
Complex sentences – more
examples
My doctor, who originally lived in Maine,
moved to California last year.

Barbara likes apples or whatever types of

fruits are used in pies.

The pelican that was sitting on the dock just

ate a mullet.
Compound-complex sentences
These sentences include at least two main
clauses and at least one dependent clause of
any kind.

These sentences are useful when trying to

communicate complicated, complex
information, processes, or sequences.
Compound-complex sentences
– examples
Although Benjamin prefers horror movies, Isabella
prefers animated films, and their mother, Patty,
prefers comedies.

The truck made a loud noise as it roared down the

highway, and then it suddenly crashed into a
telephone pole.

Before we ate dinner, we played a game of

basketball, and after dinner we played some poker.
Parallel sentences (also known as
parallelism or parallel structures)

Parallel sentences are sentences that refer to two or

more items or include a list or series and each item in
the pair, list, or series is evenly, symmetrically written.

As in geometry, two parallel lines never touch because

they’re perfectly straight.

In language, a parallel sentence reveals pairs or lists

that are also written in a balanced, even, parallel
manner.
Parallel sentences - examples
Not Parallel:
 Mary likes hiking, swimming, and to go
fishing.

Parallel:
 Mary likes hiking, swimming, and fishing.
Parallel sentences – examples
Not Parallel:
 The production manager was asked to write his
report quickly, accurately, and in a detailed
manner.

Parallel:
 The production manager was asked to write his
report quickly, accurately, and thoroughly.
Parallel sentences – examples
Not Parallel:
 The teacher said he was a poor student because he
waited until the last minute to study for the exam,
completed his lab problems in a careless manner, and
his motivation was low.

Parallel:
 The teacher said he was a poor student because he
waited until the last minute to study for the exam,
completed his lab problems in a careless manner, and
lacked motivation.
Parallel sentences – examples
Not Parallel:
 The dictionary can be used for many purposes:
to find word meanings, pronunciations, correct
spellings, and looking up irregular verbs.

Parallel:
 The dictionary can be used for many purposes:
to find word meanings, pronunciations, correct
spellings, and irregular verbs.
Parallel sentences – good
examples
"It is by logic we prove, but by intuition we discover.“ –
Leonardo da Vinci

"Humanity has advanced, when it has advanced, not

because it has been sober, responsible, and cautious, but
because it has been playful, rebellious, and immature.“ -
Tom Robbins

"Those who write clearly have readers; those who write

obscurely have commentators.“ - Albert Camus
Parallel sentences
Sentences that are not parallel are not
technically wrong, but they add flow and
rhythm to your prose and are much easier to
read.
Equative sentences
An equative sentence is a relatively short simple
sentence that reveals a kind of linguistic equation
(such as A is B or A = B). Typically, a noun is
described with one provocative adjective.

These sentences, if used wisely, can be very

effective because of their conciseness and
insightfulness.
Equative sentences – examples
Love is blind.

War is hell.

Their future is bleak.

His dad is a millionaire.

Cumulative sentences
A cumulative sentence starts with a main clause
and then includes a series of additional clauses or
phrases that usually describe or elaborate upon
that main clause.

The cumulative sentence is particularly good for

setting a scene or for panning, as with a camera, a
place, journey, memory, or some other important
event or thing.
Cumulative sentences –
examples
"The San Bernardino Valley lies only an hour east
of Los Angeles by the San Bernardino Freeway but
is in certain ways an alien place: not the coastal
California of the subtropical twilights and the soft
westerlies off the Pacific but a harsher California,
haunted by the Mojave just beyond the mountains,
devastated by the hot dry Santa Ana wind that
comes down through the passes at 100 miles an
hour and whines through the eucalyptus windbreaks
and works on the nerves.“ - Joan Didion
Cumulative sentences –
examples
"He dipped his hands in the bichloride
solution and shook them--a quick shake,
fingers down, like the fingers of a pianist
above the keys.“ – Sinclair Lewis
Periodic sentences
In contrast to cumulative sentences,
periodic sentences include various phrases
and clauses in the beginning and then
usually build to a climax conveyed in a
main clause at the sentence’s end.
Periodic sentences – examples
By staying in bed-and-breakfasts, eating in restaurants off
the beaten track, and taking advantage of public
transportation, visitors may find the city more affordable.

John, the tough one, the sullen kid who scoffed at any
show of sentiment, the kid who never cried when he
scraped his knee or elbow, gave his mother flowers.

Suddenly, for no apparent reason, the lovable cat with

patches of gray, black, and white spread over its belly,
scratched Sally.
 Remember,
how sentences begin and end are important.

Often, the ideas conveyed at the very start and

especially at the very end of a sentence are the
ones most remembered by readers.
Left-branching sentences
Similar to periodic sentences, these sentences begin
with a bunch of information first, and then end with
a main clause.

The main difference between these and periodic

sentences are that the latter don’t always necessarily
end with a clause, whereas these typically do.

Think of these sentences as really long complex

sentences.
Left-branching sentences –
examples
While I was talking on the phone, and while
my daughter was doing the dishes, a bird
crashed into the window.
Right-branching sentences
Similar to cumulative sentences, these sentences
begin with a main clause and then have a bunch of
information added onto them.

The main difference between these and cumulative

sentences are that the latter don’t always
necessarily begin with a clause, whereas these
typically do.
Right-branching sentences –
examples
The German shepherd slept on the dirty
doorstep of the old house in which it once
lived.
Right- and left-branching
sentences
Interestingly, these sentences are named
because of how readers read them on a
written page and are often referred to as
branches on a tree.

The descriptive information is like the

branches, whereas the main clause is like the
tree’s trunk or base.
Series and lists
Another useful type of sentence is simply a series or a list.

Sometimes, writing a series or list in pure prose is

effective when trying to literally demonstrate the sheer
volume or complexity of something.

At other times, a bulleted, more spaced-out list is effective.

Sometimes, short, simple sentences can be combined in a

list or series. Doing this is an effective revision strategy.
Series and lists – examples
We had a tremendous amount of work for
Dr. Johnson’s class: three 10-page essays,
an annotated bibliography with at least 25
annotations, a semester-long journal, three
exams, two presentations, and three group
projects.
Anaphora
A rhetorical device in a sentence that repeats a
sequence of words at the beginning of neighboring
clauses to give them emphasis.

Examples –
 “It was the best of times, it was the worst of times, it
was the age of wisdom, it was the age of foolishness, it
was the epoch of belief, it was the epoch of incredulity,
it was the season of Light, it was the season of
Darkness, it was the spring of hope, it was the winter of
despair” - Charles Dickens
Anaphora – example
“Let us not wallow in the valley of despair. I say to you today, my
friends, that in spite of the difficulties and frustrations of the moment, I
still have a dream. It is a dream deeply rooted in the American dream. I
have a dream that one day this nation will rise up and live out the true
meaning of its creed: "We hold these truths to be self-evident: that all
men are created equal." I have a dream that one day on the red hills of
Georgia the sons of former slaves and the sons of former slave owners
will be able to sit down together at a table of brotherhood. I have a
dream that one day even the state of Mississippi, a state, sweltering with
the heat of injustice, sweltering with the heat of oppression, will be
transformed into an oasis of freedom and justice. I have a dream that my
four little children will one day live in a nation where they will not be
judged by the color of their skin but by the content of their character. I
have a dream today.”
 – Dr. Martin Luther King
Epistrophe
The opposite of anaphora, epistrophe occurs when
a writer or speaker repeats the same word or
words at the end of successive phrases or clauses.

Examples –
 “this nation, under God, shall have a new birth of
freedom — and that government of the people, by the
people, for the people, shall not perish from the earth.”
– Abraham Lincoln
Chiasmus
This type of sentence occurs when two or more clauses are
related to each other through a reversal of structures to
make a larger point; that is, the clauses display inverted
parallelism.

Examples –
 He knowingly led, and we blindly followed.
 "I mean what I say" and "I say what I mean" Lewis Carroll in
Alice in Wonderland
 "Oh, you haven't, haven't you?" Charles Dickens in Oliver Twist.
 “ask not what your country can do for you — ask what you can do
for your country.” – President Kennedy
Asyndeton
A sentence that deliberately omits conjunctions where they
would normally be found.

Examples –

 “and that government of the people, by the people, for the people shall
not perish from the earth” – Abraham Lincoln

 "We shall go on to the end, we shall fight in France, we shall fight on

the seas and oceans, we shall fight with growing confidence and
growing strength in the air, we shall defend our Island, whatever the
cost may be, we shall fight on the beaches, we shall fight on the landing
grounds, we shall fight in the fields and in the streets, we shall fight in
the hills; we shall never surrender” – Winston Churchill
Polysyndeton
The opposite of asyndeton, polysyndeton occurs
when conjunctions are included in language where
they normally wouldn’t be included.

Examples –
 “And every living substance was destroyed which was
upon the face of the ground, both man, and cattle, and
the creeping things, and the fowl of the heaven; and
they were destroyed from the earth: and Noah only
remained alive, and they that were with him in the ark.”
Genesis 7:22-24
Understatement
Understatement occurs when a sentence
contains an expression of less strength than
what would typically be expected.

Example –
 In the movie Monty Python and the Holy Grail,
after the Black Knight has both arms cut off, he
says, “It’s just a flesh wound.”
Amplification
This involves repeating a word or expression while adding
more detail to it to emphasize what might otherwise be
passed over. Amplification allows language users to call
attention to, emphasize, and expand a word or idea to
make sure readers realize its importance or centrality.

Examples –
 He showed a rather simple taste, a taste for good art, good food,
and good friends.
 In my hunger after ten days of rigorous dieting I saw visions of ice
cream--mountains of creamy, luscious ice cream, dripping with
gooey syrup and calories.
Antithesis
This establishes a clear, contrasting relationship between two
ideas or words by joining them together or juxtaposing them,
often in parallel structure.

Examples –
 “To err is human; to forgive, divine.” – Alexander Pope
 That short and easy trip made a lasting and profound change in
Harold's outlook.
 “That's one small step for a man, one giant leap for mankind.” –Neil
Armstrong
 Though surprising, it is true; though frightening at first, it is really
harmless.
 Success makes men proud; failure makes them wise.
Climax
This strategy consists of arranging words, clauses, or sentences in the
order of increasing importance, weight, or emphasis.

Example –
 At 6:20 a.m. the ground began to heave. Windows rattled; then
they broke. Objects started falling from shelves. Water heaters fell
from their pedestals, tearing out plumbing. Outside, the road began
to break up. Water mains and gas lines were wrenched apart,
causing flooding and the danger of explosion. Office buildings
began cracking; and soon twenty, thirty, forty stories of concrete
were diving at the helpless pedestrians panicking below.
Apposition
This occurs when a noun or noun substitute is
placed next to (in apposition to) another noun to
be described or defined by the appositive.

Examples –
 Henry Jameson, the boss of the operation,
always wore a red baseball cap.
 A notorious annual feast, the picnic was well
attended.
Other strategies for enhancing your
sentences (you’re probably more familiar with these)

Alliteration
Allusion
Analogy
Hyperbole
Metaphor
Personification
Simile
Knowing when to use these strategies, how to use
them, and in what context they might work best
takes time, practice, and much thought.

However, using these sentence types judiciously

will help you enhance your writing style and voice
and ultimately make your prose more engaging
and enjoyable to read.
The End!