Fall 2010
Ancient Egypt
Dr. Patrick Perry
Associate Professor of Mathematics
Mathematics Across the Ages
Mathematics Across the Ages
This map shows the
major areas of
mathematical
development prior to the
twentieth century.
We will discuss discus the
mathematical
developments of most of
the regions highlighted.
Reference: http://aleph0.clarku.edu/%7Edjoyce/mathhist/earth.html
Ancient Egypt
The civilization began around 3150 BC
with the political unification of Upper and
Lower Egypt under the first pharaoh, and
it developed over the next three millennia.
The rule of the pharaohs officially ended
in 31 BC when the early Roman Empire
conquered Egypt and made it a province.
Reference: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Egypt
Ancient Egypt
Ancient Egypt was an ancient
civilization in eastern North Africa,
concentrated along the lower reaches
of the Nile River in what is now the
modern nation of Egypt.
Reference: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Egypt
Ancient Egypt
Hieroglyphic writing dates to c. 3200 BC,
and is composed of some 500 symbols.
The Rosetta Stone is
A section of
an Ancient Egyptian
the
artifact which was
Papyrus of Ani
instrumental in
showing
advancing modern
hieroglyphs.
understanding of
hieroglyphic writing.
Reference: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egyptian_hieroglyphs
Papyrus
A section of the
Papyrus is a thick paper-like Egyptian
Book of the Dead
material produced from the written on papyrus
papyrus plant.
In a dry climate like that of
Egypt, papyrus is stable,
highly rot-resistant.
In European conditions,
papyrus seems only to have
lasted a matter of decades.
Reference: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Papyrus
Ancient Egypt
It is from the Rhind papyrus and the Moscow papyrus that
most of our knowledge of Egyptian mathematics comes….
Rhind Moscow
papyrus papyrus
Reference:
http://www-groups.dcs.stand.ac.uk/~history/HistTopics/Egyptian_mathematics.html
Rhind Papyrus
The Rhind Mathematical Papyrus
named for A.H.Rhind who
purchased it at Luxor in 1858.
Origin: written around 1650 BC by
the scribe Ahmes.
It is 18 feet long and 13 inches wide.
It is also called the Ahmes Papyrus
after the scribed that last copied it.
It is a collection of 84 exercises designed primarily for students of mathematics.
Included are exercises in fractions, notation, arithmetic, algebra, geometry, and
mensuration.
Reference: http://www-groups.dcs.stand.ac.uk/~history/HistTopics/Egyptian_mathematics.html and
http://www.math.tamu.edu/%7Edallen/masters/index.html
Moscow Papyrus
The Moscow Mathematical papyrus was purchased by
V.S.Golenishchev and sold to the Moscow Musuem of Fine
Arts. Origin 1700 BC. It is 15 feet long and 3 inches wide.
The papyrus contains only
about 25 practical examples.
The author is unknown.
Reference: http://www-groups.dcs.stand.ac.uk/~history/HistTopics/Egyptian_mathematics.html and
http://www.math.tamu.edu/%7Edallen/masters/index.html
Egyptian Numbers
The Egyptians had a decimal system
using seven different symbols.
1 a single stroke.
10 a hobble for cattle.
100 a coil of rope.
1,000 a lotus plant.
10,000 a finger.
100,000 a tadpole or frog
1,000,000 a god with arms raised
above his head.
Reference: http://www.discoveringegypt.com
Egyptian Multiplication
The Egyptian algorithm for multiplication
was based on continual doubling process.
For example, to multiply 12 by 13, the
scribe would set down the following lines: This multiplication
‘1 12 algorithm shows that
‘2 24
the scribes were
somehow aware that
‘4 48 every positive integer
‘8 96 could be uniquely
Since 1+4+8 = 13, expressed as the sum
of powers of two.
we get 12 * 13 = 12 + 48 + 96 = 156
Reference: A History of Mathematics by V. Katz, 3rd ed.
Egyptian Fractions
The ancient Egyptians used a number system based on
unit fractions: fractions with one in the numerator.
Numbers such as 2/7 were represented as sums of unit fractions (e.g.
2/7 = 1/4 +1/28). Further, the same fraction could not be used twice (so
2/7 = 1/7 + 1/7 is not allowed).
We call a formula representing a sum of
distinct unit fractions an Egyptian fraction.
Example from the Rhind Papyrus Example An “eye”
symbol was
5 + 1⁄2 + 1⁄7 + 1⁄14 (= 5 5⁄7) 4 1 1
written above
11 3 33 a number to
Reference: http://www.ics.uci.edu/%7Eeppstein/numth/egypt/ and
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egyptian_mathematics
denote it is a
3 33 fraction.
Reading Egyptian
Hieroglyphics
The hieroglyphics are read from the
right to the left. Thus we get 1/6 + 1/ 18.
This example
shows 7 + 1/9.
Special symbols were used for 1/2
and 2/3. These are shown here. 1/2 2/3
Reference: http://www.math.buffalo.edu/mad/Ancient-Africa/mad_ancient_egypt_geometry.html#ahmes10
This is a modern
Computing Egyptian solution. It is not
known how the
Fractions
Egyptians solved
such questions.
Convert 4/13 to an Egyptian fraction.
Searching to find the first unit fraction smaller than 4/13, we find
1/4 < 4/13 < 1/3. Thus we take 1/4 as the first part.
Now 4/13 – 1/4 = 3/52. Searching to find the first unit fraction smaller
than 3/52, we find 1/18 < 3/52 < 1/17. Thus 1/18 is the second part.
Now 3/52 – 1/18 = 1/468. Since 1/468 is a unit fractions, we are done!
4/13 = 1/4+1/18+1/468
The page
http://www.maths.surrey.ac.uk/hosted-sites/R.Knott/Fr
actions/egyptian.html
The first section of the Rhind papyrus is a table of
the division of 2 by every odd integer from 3 to 101.
2/3 = 1/2 + 1/6 2/5 = 1/3 + 1/15 2/7 = 1/4 + 1/28
2/9 = 1/6 + 1/18 2/11 = 1/6 + 1/66 2/13 = 1/8 + 1/52 + 1/104
2/15 = 1/10 + 1/30 2/17 = 1/12 + 1/51 + 1/68 2/19 = 1/12 + 1/76 + 1/114
2/21= 1/14 + 1/42 2/23 = 1/12 + 1/276 2/25 = 1/15 + 1/75
2/27 = 1/18 + 1/54 2/29 = 1/24 + 1/58 + 1/174 + 1/232
2/31 = 1/20 + 1/124 + 1/155 2/33 = 1/22 + 1/66 2/35 = 1/25 + 1/30 + 1/42
2/37 = 1/24 + 1/111 + 1/296 2/39 = 1/26 + 1/78 2/41 = 1/24 + 1/246 + 1/328
2/43 = 1/42 + 1/86 + 1/129 + 1/301 2/45 = 1/30 + 1/90
2/47 = 1/30 + 1/141 + 1/470 2/49 = 1/28 + 1/196 2/51 = 1/34 + 1/102
2/53 = 1/30 + 1/318 + 1/795 2/55 = 1/30 + 1/330 2/57 = 1/38 + 1/114
2/59 = 1/36 + 1/236 + 1/531 2/61 = 1/40 + 1/244 + 1/488 + 1/610
2/63 = 1/42 + 1/126 2/65 = 1/39 + 1/195 2/67 = 1/40 + 1/335 + 1/536
2/73 = 1/60 + 1/219 + 1/292 +
2/69 = 1/46 + 1/138 2/71 = 1/40 + 1/568 + 1/710
1/365
2/75 = 1/50 + 1/150 2/77 = 1/44 + 1/308 2/79 = 1/60 + 1/237 + 1/316 + 1/790
2/81 = 1/54 + 1/162 2/83 = 1/60 + 1/332 + 1/415 + 1/498
2/85 = 1/39 + 1/195 2/87 = 1/58 + 1/174 2/89 = 1/60 + 1/356 + 1/534 + 1/890
2/91 = 1/70 + 1/130 2/93 = 1/62 + 1/186 2/95 = 1/60 + 1/380 + 1/570
2/97 = 1/56 + 1/679 + 1/776 2/99 = 1/66 + 1/198 2/101 = 1/101 + 1/202 + 1/303 + 1/606
There is still debate ongoing as to what algorithm
Ahmes used to derive these results.
Reference:
Rhind Problem #3
Problem 3 of the Rhind Papyrus asks
how to divide 6 loaves among 10 men. Rhind
papyrus
The solution is given that each man
get 1/2 + 1/10 loaves.
The first six problems of
We divide five loaves in half and the the Rhind papyrus ask
sixth one we divide into tenths. It how to divide n loaves
is then clear to all that every man between 10 men where n
=1 for Problem 1, n = 2
has the same portion of bread. for Problem 2, n = 6 for
The modern answer would be 3/5, Problem 3, n = 7 for
from which it is not clear how Problem 4, n = 8 for
Problem 5, and n = 9 for
exactly we should divide the loaves.
Problem 6
Reference: A History of Mathematics by V. Katz, 3rd ed.
Ancient Egypt: Examples
Problem 24 of the Rhind Papyrus: a quantity added to
a quarter of that quantity become 15. What is the quantity?
Modern solution
would be: Since the Egyptians did
not have Modern algebra,
X + 1/4 x = 15 they had to provide
5/4 x = 15 detailed solutions for the
such problems.
X = 15 * 4/5 Problems 24-29 are
X = 12 similar to this problem.
Reference: http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/HistTopics/Egyptian_papyri.html
Problem 24 of the Rhind Papyrus: a quantity added to
a quarter of that quantity become 15. What is the quantity?
Rhind Problem 24 cont’
Ahmes uses the "method of false position”.
In modern notation the problem is to solve x + x/4 = 15.
Ahmes guesses the answer x = 4.
This is to remove the fraction in the x/4 term.
Now with x = 4 the expression x + x/4 becomes 5.
This is not the correct answer, for the expression is
required to equal 15.
However, 15 is 3 times 5 so taking 3 times his
guess of x = 4, namely x = 12, gives Ahmes the
correct result.
Reference: http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/HistTopics/Egyptian_papyri.html
Problems 48-55
concern finding
areas of regions.
Area of Circle
Problem 50 of the Rhind Papyrus asks what is the area
of a round field of diameter 9.
The solution is take away 1/9 of the diameter; the
result is 8. Multiply 8 times 8; it makes 64. Therefore,
the area is 64. (from Rhind papyrus)
256 2
The solution is algebraically A (d 1 d ) 2 r
9 81
given by the modern expression:
2
9
The modern answer would be 63.61725
Reference: A History of Mathematics by V. Katz, 3rd ed.
2
Rhind Prob.
50 cont’
The Egytian solution is algebraically 1 256 2
given by the modern expression:
A (d d )
2
r
9 81
The modern expression for the area is: A r 2
Equating these two “solutions” shows that the
Egyptians were using 256/81 as the “value” for Pi.
256
3.141592654 3.160493827
81
Reference: A History of Mathematics by V. Katz, 3rd ed. And
http://www.africanexecutive.com/modules/magazine/articles.php?article=4075
Area of Triangles
Problem 17 MMP. Given a triangle with area 20 (setjat)
and a length that is 1/3+1/15 of its breadth; Find the
length and breadth. (The answer is length 10 and
breadth 4)
Problem 51 RMP Example of producing [the area] of a
triangle (spdt) of land. What is the area of a triangle of
height 10 khet and a base of 4 khet? The answer is
computed to be 20 setjat. (1/2*4*10).
It is clear that they knew that the area of a triangle is
1/2*base*height. Problem 51 in RMP and problem 17 in MMP
use this formula. Reference: http://euler.slu.edu/escher/index.php/The_Mathematical_Papyri
Rectangles
Problem 6 MMP: A rectangle is 12 setjat [in area] has
a breadth 1/2 1/4 [i.e. 3/4] of its length.[Calculate it]
Calculate 1/2 1/4 to get 1. The result is 1 1/3
Take this 12 setjat 1 1/3 times. The result is 16. Ahmes
Calculate its square root. The result is 4 for its solution
length [and] 1/2 1/4 of it is 3 for the breadth
In modern terms, we would solve
3/4 x * x = 12 which gives x 2 = 16
and so x =4.
Reference: http://euler.slu.edu/escher/index.php/The_Mathematical_Papyri
The royal cubit was equal to 7 palms. The seked is the slope of
One palm was equal to 4 fingers. an object. (RISE/RUN)
Rhind Problem 56
Problem 56 RMP. Example of reckoning a pyramid
360 in its ukha-thebet (length of the base) and 250 in
its peremus. Cause thou that I know the seked of it.
You are to take half of 360; It becomes 180.
You are to reckon with 250 to find 180.
Result: 1/2 + 1/5 + 1/50.
A cubit being 7 palms, you are to multiply by 7. Modern solution
1 7 180 1
1/2 3 + 1/2 *7 5
250 25
1/5 1 + 1/3 + 1/15
1/50 1/10 + 1/25
Its seked is 5 1/25 palms. Reference: http://www.math.washington.edu/~greenber/Rhind.html
The royal cubit was equal to 7 palms. The peremus is the
One palm was equal to 4 fingers. height of an object.
Rhind Problem 57
Problem 57 RMP. A pyramid 140 in its ukha-thebt
(length of the base), and 5 palms, 1 finger in its seked.
What is the peremus thereof?
You are to divide 1 cubit by the seked doubled,
which amounts to 10 1/2.
You are to reckon with 10 1/2 to find 7 for this one cubit.
Reckon with 10 1/2. Two-thirds of 10 1/2 is 7.
You are to reckon with 140, for this is the ukha thebt.
Make two-thirds of 140, namely 93 1/3.
This is the peremus thereof. 7 1
140 93
(5 4 1) / 2 3
Reference: http://euler.slu.edu/escher/index.php/The_Mathematical_Papyri
Truncated Pyramid
Example 14. (Moscow Papyrus) Example of calculating
the volume of a truncated pyramid. The base is a square
of side 4 cubits, the top is a square of side 2 cubits and
the height of the truncated pyramid is 6 cubits.
Example of calculating a truncated pyramid. If you are told: a truncated
pyramid of 6 for the vertical height by 4 on the base by 2 on top: You are
to square this 4; result 16. You are to double 4; result 8.
You are to square this 2; result 4. You are to add the 16 and the 8 and
the 4; result 28.
You are to take 1/3 of 6; result 2. You are to take 28 twice; result 56. See
it is of 56.
You will find (it) right. The Egyptian knew the
Reference: formula for the volume:
http://www-history.mcs.st-and.ac.uk/HistTopic
s/Egyptian_papyri.html V = (h / 3) (a2 + ab + b2).
Geometric Sum
Problem 79 RMP There are seven houses; in each house
there are seven cats; each cat kills seven mice; each mouse has
eaten seven grains of barley; each grain would have produced
seven hekat. What is the sum of all the enumerated things.
Houses 7
The table shown is Cats 49
given as the Mice 343 1 2801
solution. Can you Heads of 2401 2 5602
determine what the barley
last two columns Hekats 16807 4 11204
represent? of barley
Total 19607 total 19607
Reference: http://www.math.buffalo.edu/mad/Ancient-Africa/mad_ancient_egyptpapyrus.html
Erdős–Straus conjecture
The Erdős–Straus conjecture concerns the length of the
shortest expansion for a fraction of the form 4/n.
Does an expansion
4 1 1 1
n x y z
exist for every n?
It is known to be true for all n < 1014, and for all but a
vanishingly small fraction of possible values of n, but the
general truth of the conjecture remains unknown.
Example: 4/17 = 1/5+1/29+1/1233+1/3039345
4/17 = 1/6 + 1/17 + 1/102
Reference: http://mathworld.wolfram.com/Erdos-StrausConjecture.html
Egyptian Mathematics
Symbol based number system
Unit fractions were used
Mathematics built around addition
Problems on papyri show examples from
which students would generalize to actual
problems at hand. (Cook Book Math..)
Sophisticated geometry known for areas
and volumes
Reference:http://www.math.tamu.edu/%7Edallen/masters/index.html
Ancient Egypt
More Good Stuff:
1. At the site http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/ find and read the
article: An overview of Egyptian mathematics
2. At the site http://www.discoveringegypt.com/index.htm find and read the section
on Egyptian Numerals. Try working out the variety of mathematics problems
given on this site.
3. At the site http://www.mcs.surrey.ac.uk/Personal/R.Knott/Fractions/egyptian.html
read the material on Egyptian fractions. You can also use the “calculator” on this
page to find Egyptian fractions for some of the homework problems asked for this
course. (This is a long page with way more than you’ll want to read. At least read
from top to A Calculator to convert a Fraction to an Egyptian Fraction. )
More on Ancient Egypt
More Good Stuff:
1. At the site
http://www.bbc.co.uk/ahistoryoftheworld/objects/y1T3knf-
T66RwWyEt_cZBw there is an audio tour
of the British museum where the Rhind papyrus is stored.
2. Ein mathematisches handbuch der alten Aegypter (Papyrus
Rhind des British Museum) (1877) can be downloaded at
http://www.archive.org/details/einmathematische00eise . This
is the first publication on the Rhind papyrus, but it is in
German.
