2.

3 Living Processes in
Multicellular Organisms
Cell Structure & Function in
Multicellular Organisms
Multicellular organisms have different types of cells in
the body that differ in SIZE, SHAPE and
ARRANGEMENT

Cell structure is closely related to its function

Each cell type undergoes specialization to perform only

certain functions
 Specialised Cells in
Humans

Red blood White Muscle Epithelial Sperms

Nerve cells
cell blood cell cells cells cell
Nerve Cell
• Long and thin in shape
• Function :
• Functions in sending
nerve impulses
Red Blood Cell
• Does not contain a
nucleus
• Shaped as a biconcave
disc
• Function:
• to optimize
transportation of oxygen
White Blood
Cell

• Can change shape

• Function :
• Functions in
destroying pathogens
Muscle Cell
• Function :
• Arranged as
multinuclear
striated fibres

Skeletal muscle Cardiac muscle Smooth muscle

Epithelial Cell
• Thin and flat cells
• Function :
• Coats the surface of
organs such as the
digestive tract
Sperm Cell
• Has a long tail to enable
it to swim towards the
ovum in the Fallopian
tube
• The head carries a set
of chromosomes from
the male
A
A
D
D
 Specialised Cells in Plants

Palisade Spongy Root hair

Xylem Phloem Guard cells
mesophyll mesophyll cell
Palisade
Mesophyll Cell
• Consists of long
cylindrical cells,
arranged vertically and
close to each other
• Function:
• Contains high chlorophyll
density
• This arrangement allows
maximum absorption of
sunlight for
photosynthesis
Spongy
Mesophyll Cell
• Cells are loosely
arranged with lots of air
space in between
• Large air space allows
exchange of gas from
the inside of the leaves
to the palisade
mesophyll cells
Root Hair Cell
• Has a long projection
which adds surface area
Function:
• for the absorption of
water and mineral salts
Xylem Vessel
• Long, continuous
hollow tube
• Function:
• transporting
water and
mineral salts from
the roots to the
other parts of the
plant
Sieve Tube Element
• Long cylindrical
tubes arranged
from end to end
• Function:
• Transports
organic materials
from leaves to
storage organs
such as fruits
 Guard Cell
• Modified lower
epidermal cells with the
thicker cell wall on the
inner side
• Function:
• Controls the opening and
closing of the stoma.
• Stoma is the opening
that allows the exchange
of oxygen and carbon
dioxide
C
Cell organisation in humans
Cell Organization in Multicellular
Organisms

A group of cells of the same type and perform the

same function are organized into TISSUE

TISSUE: a group of cells that have the same structure

and function

There are four different types of tissues in the animal,

namely epithelial tissue, muscle tissue, connective
tissue, and nerve tissue.
 Types of tissues in animals

Epithelial Muscle Connective Nerve

tissue tissue tissue tissue
Epithelial tissue
• covers the outer surface (skin) and hollow surfaces
in the body (digestive tract and respiratory tract)
• adapted based on its function.
• For example:
1. the epithelial tissue on the skin protects against
infections, injuries, chemicals and dehydration.
2. Epithelial tissues that coat the trachea have
projections like hair, known as cilia (singular: cilium)
Epithelial tissue lining the
intestinal wall
• Adapted to absorb
nutrients after digestion
• Some epithelial cells are
modified to:
• forms the gastric glands that
produce digestive juices that
contain enzymes, and
• goblet cells to secrete mucus
Epithelial tissue lining the lungs,
body cavity & blood vessels
• Thin and stacked in one
layer
Epithelial tissue lining the trachea
and bronchi
• Has silium to sweep out
dust and other
contaminants as well as
move mucus
Epithelial tissue lining tubules,
glands and ducts
• Some epithelial tissues
are adapted to form
glands in the skin, such
as the sweat glands and
sebaceous glands
 Types of tissues in animals

Epithelial Muscle Connective Nerve

tissue tissue tissue tissue
 Muscle tissue
• Consists of cells
called muscle fibers

Muscle
tissue

Skeletal Smooth Cardiac

muscle muscle muscle
Skeletal muscle
• is involved in controlled
movement
• Skeletal muscles
contract and relax to
generate movement in
bones and limbs
Smooth muscles
• There are along the
walls of the digestive
tract, blood vessels,
reproductive tract, and
urinary tract
• Peristalsis –
• contraction & relaxation
of smooth muscles
along the digestive tract
smooth muscle contraction forms a series
of waves along the wall of the esophagus
is known as peristalsis pushing food down
into the stomach
Cardiac Muscle
• builds walls of the heart
that contract to pump
blood to the whole
body
• Cardiac muscle
contraction is
involuntary
 Smooth
muscle tissue
TISSUE: A group of cells of the ORGAN: A group of different
same type that perform the tissues combine to form
same function organs
FORMATIVE
PRACTICE
Ephitelial cell
- Secretes mucus into the small intestine
- Secretes digestive juices that contain enzymes

- Organ R is the stomach

- It is formed when two or more tissues join together
- To perform a specific function

Ribosome / Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum / Golgi Apparatus

- No / less protein synthesis occurs
- No / less protein is sent to the Golgi Apparatus

- Or

- Protein cannot be modified

- Protein cannot be packaged
- No / Less extracellular enzyme is produced
- Maltase / Sucrase / Erepsin / Peptidase / Lactase
P1: Y smooth muscle tissue
P2: contraction of Y / smooth muscle / peripheral muscle //
P3: form a series of waves (along the wall Esophagus)
P4: known as peristalsis.
P5: push the bolus down into the abdomen
 Types of tissues in animals

Epithelial Muscle Connective Nerve

tissue tissue tissue tissue
Connective tissue
• consists of various types of tissues and fibres
• distributed all over the body and has many
functions
• One of its functions is to link the organs.
Loose Connective Tissue
• Can be found in the
space between organs
• Function :
• It links the epithelial
tissue to the tissue
below it,
• and fixes the organs in
their positions
Fibrous Connective Tissue
• Contains many collagen
fibers that are tightly
packed to form tendons
and ligaments

• Tendon : connects
bones and muscles
• Ligaments: connect
bones to bones.
Bone tissue
• Consists of cells
embedded in the
collagen matrix
hardened by the
deposition of minerals
such as calcium
• Bone forms the body
frame and protects the
internal organs.
Blood Tissue
• Formed in the bone
marrow at the end of
the long bone
• Blood plays a functional
role in regulation,
transportation and
protection
Cartilage
• Strong and flexible
• Function:
• Provides support to the
nose & ears
• Cartilage encloses bone
tips to prevent the bone
from wearing out.
Adipose Tissue
• Connective tissues keep
fat under the skin
dermis and the surface
of all main organs
Tissue organisation in
plants
 Tissue organisation in plants

Permanent
Meristem tissue
tissue

Apical meristem Dermal Ground Vascular

tissue tissue tissue tissue

Lateral meristem Parenchyma

Xylem tissue
tissue tissue

Collenchyma
Phloem tissue
tissue

Sclerenchyma
tissue
Apical meristem tissue

Lateral meristem
tissue

Apical meristem tissue

 Tissue organisation in plants

Permanent
Meristem tissue
tissue

Apical meristem Dermal Ground Vascular

tissue tissue tissue tissue

Lateral meristem Parenchyma

Xylem tissue
tissue tissue

Collenchyma
Phloem tissue
tissue

Sclerenchyma
tissue
Ground tissue
• Consist of:
• Parenchyma tissue
• Collenchyma tissue
• Sclerenchyma tissue
 FUNCTIONS:
FUNCTIONS:
FUNCTIONS : providing support and
1. to store starch, protein
giving support to young, mechanical
and water.
non-woody stems strength to all mature parts
2. carry out photosynthesis
(herbaceous plants). of the plant
 Tissue organisation in plants

Permanent
Meristem tissue
tissue

Apical meristem Dermal Ground Vascular

tissue tissue tissue tissue

Lateral meristem Parenchyma

Xylem tissue
tissue tissue

Collenchyma
Phloem tissue
tissue

Sclerenchyma
tissue
Vascular tissue
• made up of:
i. xylem tissue
ii. phloem tissue
Xylem tissue
• functions in
transporting water and
mineral salts from the
roots to other parts of
the plant.
• Ligneous xylem tissue
wall provides support
and mechanical
strength to the plants
Phloem tissue
• functions in
transporting organic
matters such as sucrose
from the leaves to all
parts of the plant
 XYLEM PHLOEM
its walls thickened by lignin The walls do NOT undergo lignin
thickening
consists of the xylem and tracheid consists of sieve tube and companion
cell
contains dead cells contains living cells
FORMATIVE
PRACTICE
Golgi apparatus
Mitochondria
1. To process / modify carbohydrates / proteins / phospholipids / and
glycoproteins
2. To package carbohydrates / proteins / phospholipids / glycoproteins
3. To transport carbohydrates / proteins / phospholipids and glycoproteins
4. To transport and store lipids
5. To form lysosomes
6. To produce digestive enzymes
7. To secrete excretory products from cells
8. To secrete carbohydrates to form plant walls
Tissue Organelle Function
Meristemic Mitochondria To generate energy for
tissue cell division
Mesophyll Chloroplast To trap light energy for
tissue the process of
photosynthesis
• X is the contractile vacuole
• Helps to get rid of excess water (which enters the organism by osmosis)

• Y is the cilia
• It Helps (Paramecium sp) to move forward // helps the organism move
Xylem

Phloem
• P (Xylem): its wall undergoes lignin thickening while Q (Phloem) does not
undergo lignin thickening
• P consists of xylem and tracheid while Q consists of companion cells and
sieve tubes
• P contains dead cells while Q contains living cells
• P (xylem) transports water and mineral salts
• From the roots to the top of the tree
• Because (has) a xylem / tracheid // has a thickening of lignin to strengthen it
Mitochondria
• To produce more energy
• For cell division/ growth
 Density of certain cell
components and specialised
cell functions
 • Since the functions performed
by cells are different, some cells
have a higher density of certain
cell components.
• The density of a cell component
in a particular cell is related to
the specific function of the cell.
Relationship between cell component
density with specialised cell functions
Types of cell Cell component found in Function
abundance
Sperm cell Requires a lot of energy to swim
towards the uterus and Fallopian
Mitochondrion tube to fertilise the secondary
oocytes
Muscle cell Requires a lot of energy to contract
such as flight and relax to enable movement and
muscle cells in flight
insects and
birds
Plant Requires a lot of energy to carry out
meristem cell active cell division process to
produce new cells
 Relationship between cell component
density with specialised cell functions
Types of cell Cell component found in Function
abundance
Palisade Chloroplast Absorbs more sunlight to carry out
mesophyll cell the process of photosynthesis

Spongy
mesophyll cell
Pancreatic cell Increases synthesis and secretion of
digestive enzymes
Goblet cell in Rough endoplasmic
intestinal reticulum Produces mucus
epithelium and
respiratory Golgi apparatus
tract
Liver cell • Metabolises carbohydrates
• Detoxification of drugs and poisons
A