EEE358S

Fundamentals of
Communications Engineering
Emmanuel O Bejide
[email protected]
http://www.uct.ac.za/depts/staff/rebejide/
Department of Electrical Engineering
University of Cape Town
 Sampling
• In many applications it is useful to represent a
signal in terms of sample values taken at
appropriatelly spaced intervals.
• The signal can be reconstructed from the
sampled waveform by passing it through an
ideal lowpass filter.
• In order to ensure a faithful reconstruction, the
original signal must be sampled at an
appropriate rate as described in the sampling
theorem.
 Sampling
• sampling theorem
– A real-valued band-limited signal having no
spectral components above a frequency of B
Hz is determined uniquely by its values at
uniform intervals spaced no greater than  2B1 
seconds apart.
 Sampling
• Consider a band-limited signal f(t) having
no spectral component above B Hz.
• Let each rectangular sampling pulse have
unit amplitudes, seconds in width and
occuring at interval of T seconds.
 Sampling

f(t) A/D fs(t)

conversion

Sampling
 Sampling
• Denote the sampled signal by fs(t) and the
periodic gate function as PT(t), we have
fs(t)= f(t) PT(t)

• The periodic signal PT(t) can be represented by

the Fourier Series as

PT (t )   Pe
n 
n
jno t

2
where o 
T
 Sampling
• The sampled signal can, therefore, be
represented as:

f s (t)= f(t)  Pn e jno t

n 

• By taking the Fourier transform of both sides,

we have:
 
jno t 
F  f s (t) = F f(t)  Pn e 
 n  

  P F f(t)e 
n 
n
jno t
 Sampling
• By using the frequency translation property of
the Fourier transform, the spectral density of
fs(t) can be written as:

Fs ( )=  P F(  n )
n 
n o


=Po F( ) +  P F(  n )
n 
n o

n0
 Sampling
• The spectral density of fs(t) is exactly like that of
f(t). It repeats itself periodically in frequency
every o . The replicas of the original spectral
density are weighted by the amplitude of the
Fourier series coefficients of the sampling
waveform
Steps in sampling a band-limited signal.

0
1

2o o o 2o

2o o o 2o

0
1
 Effects of changing the sampling rate.
• If T decreases, o increases and all replicas of
F( ) moves farther apart.
• If T increases,  decreases and all replicas of
o
F( ) moves closer. Soon a point is reached beyond
which a reduction in the sampling rate will result in
overlap between spectral densities. This point is
reached when
2
 4 B
T
1
Therefore, T= .
2B
 Sampling
• To avoid spectral overlap:

1
T< .
2B

• Nyquist sampling rate.

 Sampling
• The following are the limitations on the use
of the full potentials of the sampling
theorem:
– No ideal low-pass filter.
– No strictly band-limited signals.

• ALIASING
 Sampling
• Avoiding aliasing
– Band-limiting signals (by filtering) before
sampling.
– Sampling at a rate that is greater than the
Nyquist rate.
Anti-aliasing A/D fs(t)
f(t)
filter conversion

Sampling
 Example: Aliasing of
Sinusoidal Signals
Frequency of signals = 500 Hz, Sampling frequency = 2000Hz
 Example: Aliasing of
Sinusoidal Signals
Frequency of signals = 1100 Hz, Sampling frequency = 2000Hz
 Example: Aliasing of
Sinusoidal Signals
Frequency of signals = 1500 Hz, Sampling frequency = 2000Hz
 Example: Aliasing of
Sinusoidal Signals
Frequency of signals = 1800 Hz, Sampling frequency = 2000Hz
 Example: Aliasing of
Sinusoidal Signals
Frequency of signals = 2200 Hz, Sampling frequency = 2000Hz
Aliasing in Frequency Domain
X   j 
1

 s  x 0 x s
X   j 
1

 s  x 0 x s
X   j 
1

 s  x 0 x s
 Impulse Sampling
• With an impulse sampler, the switching
function is a train of impulse functions:
• x(t) = n=- (t – nT)
Analog signal x(t) xs(t) Sampled signal

Switching function

T
 Impulse Sampling
• The impulse sampled waveform is
• xs(t) = x(t) x(t)
• = n=- x(t) (t – nT)
• = n=- x(nT) (t – nT)
• where x(nT) are the instantaneous
sample values selected by the impulse
sampler at the times nT.
 Impulse Sampling
Signal waveform Sampled waveform

0
0
1 201
1 201

Impulse sampler

0
1 201
 Impulse Sampling
with increasing sampling time T
Sampled waveform Sampled waveform

0 0
1 201 1 201

Sampled waveform Sampled waveform

0 0
1 201 1 201
• The Fourier transform of an impulse train in time
• x(t) = n=- (t – nT)
• is another impulse train in frequency
• X(f) = (1/T) n=- (f – n/T) = fs n=- (f – n fs)

• Fourier transform of the impulse sampled waveform is

the convolution
• Xs(f) = X (f) * X(f)
• = X (f) * fs n=- (f – n fs)
• = fs n=- X(f – n fs)
 Natural sampling
(Sampling with rectangular waveform)
• Consider a band-limited signal x(t) having
no spectral component above B Hz.
• Let each rectangular sampling pulse have
amplitude A, be  seconds in width and
occurring at interval of T seconds.
Analog signal x(t) xs(t) Sampled signal

Switching function

A

T
 Natural sampling
(Sampling with rectangular
Signal waveform
waveform) Sampled waveform

0
0 1 201 401 601 801 1001 1201 1401 1601 1801 200
1 201 401 601 801 1001 1201 1401 1601 1801 2001

Natural sampler

0
1 201 401 601 801 1001 1201 1401 1601 1801 2001