Unit 5: Memory and Forgetting LH 7

A. Memory B. Contemporary Approaches to Memor

1.Concept, 1. working memory,
2. Memory process (2.1.encoding, 2.2.storage, 2. long-term memory modules:
2.3.retrieval) 2.1.declarative memory (semantic mem
3. Memory system and episodic memory,) and
3.1.sensory memory, 2.2.procedural memory
3.2.short-term memory, 3. Improving memory
3.3.long-term memory
(Atkinson and Shiffrin model)
C. Forgetting
1.Concept
2. Causes of forgetting
i) decay,
ii) inhibition (proactive and retroactive),
iii) memory dysfunctions:
Alzheimer’s disease,
amnesia – retrograde and anterograde
A. Memory: (1) Concept
A:2. Basic Memory Process
A: 2.1. Encoding
Three types of encoding
 Encoding
• We get information into our brains through a process called encoding, which is the input of information
into the memory system. Once we receive sensory information from the environment, our brains label
or code it. Encoding information follows two processing.
(a) automatic processing -If someone asks you what you ate for lunch today, more than likely you
could recall this information quite easily. This is known as automatic processing, or the encoding of
details like time, space, frequency, and the meaning of words. Automatic processing is usually done
without any conscious awareness.
(b) effortful processing -Recalling the last time you studied for a test is another example of automatic
processing. But what about the actual test material you studied? It probably required a lot of work and
attention on your part in order to encode that information. This is known as effortful processing 
• Recoding- The process of encoding is selective, and in complex situations, relatively few of many
possible details are noticed and encoded. The process of encoding always involves recoding—that is,
taking the information from the form it is delivered to us and then converting it in a way that we can
make sense of it. For example, you might try to remember the colors of a rainbow by using the acronym
VIBGYOR is recoding. 
 A: 2.2 Storage
• Arriving-When information from sensory input comes into our memory system, it needs to be
changed into a form that the system can cope with, so that it can be stored.
• Managing- Storage is the more or less passive process of retaining information in the brain,
whether in the sensory memory, the short term memory or the more permanent long-term memory.
Each of these different stages of human memory function as a sort of filter that helps to protect us
from the flood of information that confronts us on a daily basis, avoiding an overload of
information and helping to keep us sane.
• Long-term memory-The more the information is repeated or used, the more likely it is to be
retained in long-term memory (i.e. more studying helps people to perform better on tests).
• Reconstructing- contrary to the popular notion, memories are not stored in our brains like books
on library shelves but must be actively reconstructed from elements scattered throughout various
areas of the brain by the encoding process. Memory storage is, therefore, an ongoing process of
reclassification resulting from continuous changes in our neural pathways, and parallel processing
of information in our brains.
2. 3 Retrieval
• Memory retrieval is the process of remembering information stored in long-term memory. Some
theorists suggests that there are three stores of memory: sensory memory, long-term memory (LTM),
and short-term memory (STM). Only data that is processed through STM and encoded into LTM can
later be retrieved. There are two main types of memory retrieval:
(a) In recall, the information must be retrieved from memories. It involves remembering a fact,
event or object that is not currently physically present (in the sense of retrieving a
representation, mental image or concept), and requires the direct uncovering of information
from memory, e.g. remembering the name of a recognized person, fill-in-the blank questions,
etc.
(b) In recognition, the presentation of a familiar outside stimulus provides a cue that the
information has been seen before. A cue might be an object or a scene—any stimulus that
reminds a person of something related. Recall may be assisted when retrieval cues are
presented that enable the subject to quickly access the information in memory.
• Serial recall refers to our ability to recall items or events in the order in which they occurred,
whether chronological events in our autobiographical memories, or the order of the different parts of
a sentence (or phonemes in a word) in order to make sense of them.
A. 3: Memory System
• Memory works as system passing through-from sensory to short-term, an, finally, to long
term.
• Memory researchers often use what is referred to as the three-store model to conceptualize
human memory- i. e.- three basic stores: sensory, short-term, and long-term
• Each of the memories can be distinguished based on storage capacity and duration-long-term
memory has a seemingly unlimited capacity that last years, short-term memory is relatively
brief and limited. Sensory memory has less than 1 seconds. Chunking information into small
groups makes it easier to remember more items for a short period.
• The information-processing view of memory suggests that human memory works much like a
computer. In this model, information first enters short-term memory (a temporary holding store
for recent events) and then some of this information is transferred into long-term memory (a
relatively permanent store), much like information on a computer being placed on a hard disk. It
The multistore model of memory (also known as the modal model) was proposed
by Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968) and is a structural model.
Comparing 3 types of memory
A: 3.1 Sensory memory
 Sensory memory
How many of the thousands of perceptual experiences we make during a day are stored in long-
term memory ?
Sensory memory is an ultra-short-term memory and decays or degrades very quickly, typically in the
region of 200 – 500 milliseconds (1/5 – 1/2 second) after the perception of an item, and certainly less
than a second (although echoic memory is now thought to last a little longer, up to perhaps three or four
seconds). 
• Sensory memory is a relatively automatic form of memory. No efforts of mind takes place to memorize.
It’s “when you take in everything around you” before transmitting a portion of what you see to short-
term memory. It is like “raw data” that your brain then processes to make sense and order.
• It has a duration of several seconds, but a large capacity memory source. The brain is receiving
signals from multiple sensory signals, which include what you see, smell, and hear. However, even with
all the stimulation, your brain is able to attend to and target most of the aspects you want to focus on.
• Sensory memory starts to decline as a person ages.
Types of sensory memory
• The sensory memory comprises:
• Iconic memory (Visual sensory input from the eyes)
• Echoic memory (Auditory sensory input)
• Haptic memory (Tactile sensory input)
• Gustatory memory (sense of taste)
• Olfactory memory (sense of smell)
(1) Iconic memory
• the eyes aren’t able to transmit some objects in motion to memory. For visual sensory
memory to work well, you and the object you’re observing must be still.
• If your sensory memory can’t capture these memories well, why are you still able to
remember things when you’re moving? The good news is you have other methods of
creating memories other than visual sensory memory. It’s just one of the tools at your
disposal.
Types of sensory memory
(2) Echoic memory
• Auditory sensory memory is when a person uses the things they hear to create
memories. An example could be listening to and recalling a list of items.
• Auditory and visual sensory memory have some interesting differences. For
auditory sensory memory, when a person hears a list, they tend to remember the
first and last words spoken the most, according to an article in the journal.
However, this isn’t the same for visual memories. If a person sees a list of items,
they’re more likely to remember the first items and not always the last ones.
(3) Haptic memory
Current research (2018) shows that humans form detailed and durable long-
term memory representations for a high number of their haptic experiences,
even if there is no intention to memorize them. Memory capacity of iconic and
haptic is almost equal (after 1 week).
3.2 Short-term memory
• Short-term memory, also known as primary or active memory, is the information we are
currently aware of or thinking about. The information found in short-term memory comes from
paying attention to sensory memories.
• Example- remembering phone number (how many seconds do you need to save the phone
number listening that rattling, if saved gone into LTM, in not, decayed from STM)
• It is very brief. When short-term memories are not rehearsed or actively maintained, they last
mere ( approximately 20 to 30) seconds.
• The storing capacity of STM is limited. It is commonly suggested that short-term memory can
hold seven plus or minus two items(7 ± 2= 5-9).
• You can increase the duration of short-term memories to an extent by using rehearsal strategies
such as saying the information aloud or mentally repeating it.
• Short-Term vs. Working Memory- Working memory refers to the processes that are used to
temporarily store, organize, and manipulate information. Short-term memory, on the other hand,
refers only to the temporary storage of information in memory.
3.3 Long-term memory
• Long-term memory (LTM) the final stage of the multi-store memory
model proposed by the Atkinson-Shiffrin, providing the lasting retention
of information and skills.

• Theoretically, the capacity of long-term memory could be unlimited, the

main constraint on recall being accessibility rather than availability.
• Duration might be a few minutes or a lifetime. 

• long-term memory is divided into (by Tulving,1972)- episodic, semantic

and procedural memory.
B. Contemporary Approaches to Memory
In contemporary research, “working memory” is a software
approach, rather than hardware approach of distinctly separating
STM & LTM
LTM has been further investigated in different modules

a. First degree: explicit/declarative and implicit/ procedural

b. Second degree, in explicit, - episodic- personal and
semantic- academic
c. Second degree, in implicit- cognition & motor procedure and
emotional/feeling procedure
 B:1. Working memory
• Consider, while talking STM & LTM:
(a) WM includes both STM and part of LTM (LTM’s activated part)
(b) Relationship between the memory storage registers Information can be
transferred from STM into LTM (i.e. from one register to another) , but WM is
not distinct from LTM, but rather the activated part of LTM
• It is defined as the human cognitive system’s ability to store for a short period of
time information relevant to the task and at the same time to operate with this
information.
• It has two components: short-term storage and processing but it is a temporary
storage space for information. While working with the stored information for higher
level cognition, the working memory is activated.
 Implications of WM in learning
• limited capacity of working memory- This means that exposing students to an
exceedingly large volume of information which is either insufficiently organized or
difficult to connect to their pre-existing knowledge is counterproductive because it exceeds
their processing resources
• Avoid to use of excessively long sentences during an oral exposition or cluttering it with
too many details can also make processing at the level of WM more difficult.
• The duration for which knowledge is activated- the more time a teacher allots in order
to facilitate the operation with information at the level of WM, the more likely it is for it to
be remembered over time.
• Highlights inter-individual differences in WM capacity when accomplishing a specific
task (knowledge base, abilities to organize information).
 B:2. Long-Term Memory Modules

• LTM capacity can be extended through various information management strategies (strategies
for creating chunks, generating inferences and reasoning).
• LTM is an essential component of the cognitive system which guides attention, perceptive
and decisional processes through WM. It is LTM that guides the trajectory, i.e. the sequential
steps in solving tasks.
• In STM encoding is mostly acoustic and serial, whereas in LTM it is parallel and based on the
meaning of the items (semantic encoding) and less on their verbal form (verbal or acoustic
encoding).
 Implications of LTM in learning
Duration of storage in LTM varies according to the type of information that is processed.
Thus, concepts are generally stored for a longer period of time compared to proper names
(item vs meaning)
Learning strategies which actively involve students in processing by generating inferences
increase storage duration in LTD. Active learning refers to how minutely the material which
needs to be learned is processed
Rhythm of forgetting rapidly increases during the first weeks after learning, the curve of
forgetting becoming flat at a later time, Content remembered by students for around 12-24
hours from the time when it was memorised stands a great chance of being permanently
stored.
Repetitions at longer intervals have better results than immediate repetitions
Techniques;
• Accompanying verbal presentations with image ones;
• Exercising the transfer of contents and operating structures from one task or context to
another;
 Implicit Memory
• How to drive a motorcycle- it is
not necessary to say yourself while
driving now and learning before. It
come into practice automatically.
• Since it is unconscious or implicit
memories – they operate at an
entirely unconscious level,
affecting us even though we are
not aware of their existence.
• Unknowingly, your past
experiences is shaping to
remembering and learning new
skills, developing belief, and
perceiving
B:3. Improving Memory
11. Get sufficient sleep- while sleeping your brain do the homework that was
given in awaken works.
 How To Study Effectively
• Use elaborative rehearsal: If we want to remember a piece of information, we should think
about it more deeply and link it to other information and memories to make it more
meaningful. For example, if we are trying to remember that the hippocampus is involved with
memory processing, we might envision a hippopotamus with excellent memory and then we
could better remember the hippocampus.
• Apply the self-reference effect: As you go through the process of elaborative rehearsal, it
would be even more beneficial to make the material you are trying to memorize personally
meaningful to you. In other words, make use of the self-reference effect. Write notes in your
own words. Write definitions from the text, and then rewrite them in your own words. Relate
the material to something you have already learned for another class, or think how you can
apply the concepts to your own life. When you do this, you are building a web of retrieval cues
that will help you access the material when you want to remember it.
• Chunking, for instance, involves combining individual units of information into larger blocks,
such as remembering a phone number as a combination of two­and three­digit numbers rather
than ten individual digits
How To Study Effectively
• Don’t forget the forgetting curve: As you know, the information you learn drops off rapidly
with time. Even if you think you know the material, study it again right before test time to
increase the likelihood the information will remain in your memory. Overlearning can help
prevent storage decay.
• Rehearse, rehearse, rehearse: Review the material over time, in spaced and organized study
sessions. Organize and study your notes, and take practice quizzes/exams. Link the new
information to other information you already know well.
• But consider: Mass vs space: Massed Practice refers to conditions in which individuals
practice a task continuously without rest.  Spaced Practice refers to conditions in which
individuals are given rest intervals within the practice sessions.  While information repeated
in a distributed fashion or spaced over time learned more slowly, it is retained for much
longer.
• Be aware of interference: To reduce the likelihood of interference, study during a quiet time
without interruptions or distractions (like television or music).
 How To Study Effectively
• Keep moving: Of course you already know that exercise is good for your body, but did you also
know it’s also good for your mind? Aerobic exercise promotes neurogenesis: the growth of new
brain cells in the hippocampus, an area of the brain known to play a role in memory and learning.
• Get enough sleep: While you are sleeping, your brain is still at work. During sleep the brain
organizes and consolidates information to be stored in long-term memory.
• Make use of mnemonic devices: Mnemonic devices often help us to remember and recall
information. There are different types of mnemonic devices, such as the acronym. An acronym is a
word formed by the first letter of each of the words you want to remember. Mnemonics aid
original information in becoming associated with something more accessible or meaningful—
which, in turn, provides better retention of the information. make use of elaborative encoding,
retrieval cues, and imagery as specific tools to encode any given information in a way that allows
for efficient storage and retrieval.
Mnemonics
 E. Forgetting
Concept
Causes of forgetting
i) Decay,
ii) Inhibition (proactive and retroactive),
iii) memory dysfunctions
(a) Alzheimer’s disease,
(b) Amnesia- retrograde and anterograde
E. 1: Concept of Forgetting
C: Forgetting
 E.2 : Causes of Forgetting
There are two approaches that explains why forgetting occurs:
(1) Natural: under this approach there are two theories
(a) Decay Theory
(b) Interference theory

(2) Neurological/medical: under this approach there are two diseases

(c) Alziemer
(d) Dementia
Causes of Forgetting
Ebbinghaus' (1895)
Critical evaluation of Decay Theory
If forgetting is the decay over time lapse: it cannot explain why:
a) Riding bicycle does not forget after many years?
b) The mental representation of different places (even a short visit) last forever ?
c) Something forget now, may remember after sometime later?
 Interference Theory
There are two ways in which interference can cause forgetting:
1. Proactive interference (pro=forward) occurs when you cannot learn a new task
because of an old task that had been learnt.  When what we already know interferes
with what we are currently learning – where old memories disrupt new memories.
2. Retroactive interference (retro=backward) occurs when you forget a previously
learnt task due to the learning of a new task. In other words, later learning interferes
with earlier learning - where new memories disrupt old memories.

P =Proactive interference 
O =Old disturbs new
R =Retroactive interference 
N = New disturbs old
 Interference or Inhibition

• Interreference or inhibition refers to- contents are disrupted or

interfered with by what we have previously learned or by what we will
learn in the future. 
• Psychologists during the 1930s, 1940s, or 1950s assumed that the cause
of forgetting is "Interference". 
• distorting or disrupting memories- information in long term memory
may become confused or combined with other information during
encoding.
 Interference or Inhibition
• Tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon (मनमा आ’छ, मुखमा आएन): Occasionally, a person will
experience a specific type of retrieval failure. This is the failure to retrieve a word from
memory, combined with partial recall and the feeling that retrieval is imminent.
• Assisting- People who experience this can often recall one or more features of the target
word such as the first letter, words that sound similar, or words that have a similar
meaning.
• Cause of Tip-of-the-tongue- There are two hypothesis:
• direct-access perspective- states that the memory is not strong enough to retrieve but
strong enough to trigger the state.
• inferential perspective-  posits that the state occurs when the subject infers knowledge
of the target word, but tries to piece together different clues about the word that are
not accessible in memory.
Summary
C:2 Memory Fails: Organic Causes
C:2 Memory Fails: Organic Causes
 Memory Fails: Organic Amnesia
Retrograde Amnesia: If the hippocampus is that important to the formation of declarative
memories, what would happen if it got temporarily “disconnected”? People who are in accidents in
which they received a head injury often are unable to recall the accident itself.
•Sometimes they cannot remember the last several hours or even days before the accident. This type
of amnesia (literally, “without memory”) is called retrograde amnesia, which is loss of memory
from the point of injury backwards. What apparently happens in this kind of memory loss is that
the consolidation process, which was busy making the physical changes to allow new memories to
be stored, gets disrupted and loses everything that was not already nearly “finished.”
Anterograde amnesia- is the loss of memories from the point of injury or illness forward. People
with this kind of amnesia, have difficulty remembering anything new. This is also the kind of
amnesia most often seen in people with senile dementia, a mental disorder in which severe
forgetfulness, mental confusion, and mood swings are the primary symptoms.
Applying Psychology to Everyday Life: Alzheimer’s Disease
• In November 1906, clinical psychiatrist,
Alois Alzheimer presented his landmark
discovery of ‘an unusual disease of the
human cortex’ 
• A 51-year-old woman, Auguste Deter, was
hospitalized for paranoia, sleep and memory
disturbance, aggression, and confusion.
Alzheimer found distinctive plaques and
neurofibrillary tangles in her brain.
• This particular collection of symptoms was
named as ‘Alzheimer’s disease’ and
presented ‘Psychiatrie’ in 1910.
 Applying Psychology to Everyday Life: Alzheimer’s Disease
• Alzheimer's is the most common cause of dementia, a general term for memory loss and
other cognitive abilities serious enough to interfere with daily life. Alzheimer's disease
accounts for 60-80% of dementia cases.
• Alzheimer's is not a normal part of aging- the greatest known risk factor is increasing age,
and the majority of people with Alzheimer's are 65 and older. But Alzheimer's is not just a
disease of old age.
• Alzheimer's is a progressive disease, where dementia symptoms gradually worsen over
a number of years. In its early stages, memory loss is mild, but with late-stage Alzheimer's,
individuals lose the ability to carry on a conversation and respond to their environment.
• Aug. 4, 2020 - A drug candidate previously shown to slow aging in brain cells,
successfully reversed memory loss in a mouse model of inherited Alzheimer's disease.
How do you suggest to care if any senior member of
your friends'’ family get Alzheimer's disease?

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