A General Introduction to

Artificial Intelligence
 Outline

 Knowledge-based agents
 Wumpus world
 Logic in general - models and entailment
 Propositional (Boolean) logic
 Equivalence, validity, satisfiability
 Inference rules and theorem proving
 forward chaining
 backward chaining
 resolution
 Knowledge Bases

 Knowledge base = set of sentences in a formal language

 Declarative approach to building an agent (or other
system):
 Tell it what it needs to know
 Then it can Ask itself what to do - answers should follow
from the KB
 Agents can be viewed at the knowledge level
i.e., what they know, regardless of how implemented
 Or at the implementation level
 i.e., data structures in KB and algorithms that
manipulate them.
Simple Knowledge-Based AgentS

 The agent must be able to:

 Represent states, actions, etc.
 Incorporate new percepts
 Update internal representations of the world
 Deduce hidden properties of the world
 Deduce appropriate actions
Wumpus World PEAS Description
 Performance measure
 gold +1000, death -1000
 -1 per step, -10 for using the arrow

 Environment
 Squares adjacent to wumpus are smelly
 Squares adjacent to pit are breezy
 Glitter iff gold is in the same square
 Shooting kills wumpus if you are facing it
 Shooting uses up the only arrow
 Grabbing picks up gold if in same square
 Releasing drops the gold in same square

 Sensors: Stench, Breeze, Glitter, Bump, Scream

 Actuators: Left turn, Right turn, Forward, Grab, Release, Shoot
 Wumpus World
Characterization
 Fully Observable No – only local perception
 Deterministic Yes – outcomes exactly specified
 Episodic No – sequential at the level of actions
 Static Yes – Wumpus and Pits do not move
 Discrete Yes
 Single-agent? Yes – Wumpus is essentially a
natural feature
Exploring a Wumpus World
Exploring a Wumpus World
Exploring a Wumpus World
Exploring a wumpus world
Exploring a wumpus world
Exploring a wumpus world
Exploring a wumpus world
Exploring a wumpus world
 Logic in General
 Logics are formal languages for representing information
such that conclusions can be drawn
 Syntax defines the sentences in the language
 Semantics define the "meaning" of sentences;
 i.e., define truth of a sentence in a world

 E.g., the language of arithmetic

 x+2 ≥ y is a sentence; x2+y > {} is not a sentence
 x+2 ≥ y is true iff the number x+2 is no less than the number y
 x+2 ≥ y is true in a world where x = 7, y = 1
 x+2 ≥ y is false in a world where x = 0, y = 6
 Entailment
 Entailment means that one thing follows from
another:
KB ╞ α
 Knowledge base KB entails sentence α if and
only if α is true in all worlds where KB is true
 E.g., the KB containing “the Giants won” and “the
Reds won” entails “Either the Giants won or the Reds
won”
 E.g., x+y = 4 entails 4 = x+y
 Entailment is a relationship between sentences (i.e.,
syntax) that is based on semantics
 Models
 Logicians typically think in terms of models, which are
formally structured worlds with respect to which truth
can be evaluated

 We say m is a model of a sentence α if α is true in m

 M(α) is the set of all models of α

 Then KB ╞ α iff M(KB)  M(α)

 E.g. KB = Giants won and Reds
won α = Giants won
 Entailment in the wumpus world

Situation after detecting nothing

in [1,1], moving right, breeze
in [2,1]

Consider possible models for KB

assuming only pits

3 Boolean choices  8 possible

models
Wumpus Models
 Wumpus Models

 KB = wumpus-world rules + observations

 Wumpus Models

 KB = wumpus-world rules + observations

 α1 = "[1,2] is safe", KB ╞ α1, proved by model checking.
 Wumpus Models

 KB = wumpus-world rules + observations

 Wumpus Models

 KB = wumpus-world rules + observations

 α2 = "[2,2] is safe", KB ╞ α2
 Inference
 KB ├i α = sentence α can be derived from KB by
procedure i
 Soundness: i is sound if whenever KB ├i α, it is also true
that KB╞ α
 Completeness: i is complete if whenever KB╞ α, it is also
true that KB ├i α
 Preview: we will define a logic (first-order logic) which is
expressive enough to say almost anything of interest,
and for which there exists a sound and complete
inference procedure.
 That is, the procedure will answer any question whose
answer follows from what is known by the KB.
 Propositional logic: Syntax
 Propositional logic is the simplest logic – illustrates basic
ideas.

 The proposition symbols P1, P2 etc are sentences

 If S is a sentence, S is a sentence (negation)

 If S and S are sentences, S  S is a sentence

1 2 1 2
(conjunction)
 If S and S are sentences, S  S is a sentence
1 2 1 2
(disjunction)
 If S and S are sentences, S  S is a sentence
1 2 1 2
(implication)
 If S and S are sentences, S  S is a sentence
1 2 1 2
(biconditional)
 Propositional Logic: Semantics
Each model specifies true/false for each proposition symbol
E.g. P1,2 P2,2 P3,1
false true false

With these symbols, 8 possible models, can be enumerated automatically.

Rules for evaluating truth with respect to a model m:
S is true iff S is false
S1  S2 is true iff S1 is true and S2 is true
S1  S2 is true iff S1is true or S2 is true
S1  S2 is true iff S1 is false or S2 is true
i.e., is false iff S1 is true and S2 is false
S1  S2 is true iff S1S2 is true and S2S1 is true

Simple recursive process evaluates an arbitrary sentence, e.g.,

P1,2  (P2,2  P3,1) = true  (true  false) = true  true = true

Truth Tables for Connectives
 Wumpus World Sentences

Let Pi,j be true if there is a pit in [i, j].

Let Bi,j be true if there is a breeze in [i, j].
 P1,1
B1,1
B2,1

 "Pits cause breezes in adjacent squares"

B1,1  (P1,2  P2,1)
B2,1  (P1,1  P2,2  P3,1)
Truth Tables for Inference
 Inference by Enumeration
 Depth-first enumeration of all models is sound and complete

 For n symbols, time complexity is O(2n), space complexity is O(n)

 Logical Equivalence
 Two sentences are logically equivalent iff true in same
models: α ≡ ß iff α╞ β and β╞ α
 Validity and Satisfiability
A sentence is valid if it is true in all models,
e.g., True, A A, A  A, (A  (A  B))
B

Validity is connected to inference via the Deduction Theorem:

KB ╞ α if and only if (KB  α) is valid

A sentence is satisfiable if it is true in some model

e.g., A B, C

A sentence is unsatisfiable if it is true in no models

e.g., AA

Satisfiability is connected to inference via the following:

KB ╞ α if and only if (KB α) is unsatisfiable
 Proof Methods
 Proof methods divide into (roughly) two kinds:
 Application of inference rules
 Legitimate (sound) generation of new sentences from old

 Proof = a sequence of inference rule applications

Can use inference rules as operators in a
standard search algorithm
 Typically require transformation of sentences into a normal form

 Model checking
 truth table enumeration (always exponential in n)

 improved backtracking, e.g., Davis--Putnam-Logemann-Loveland

(DPLL)
 heuristic search in model space (sound but incomplete)

e.g., min-conflicts-like hill-climbing algorithms

 Resolution
Conjunctive Normal Form (CNF)
conjunction of disjunctions of literals
clauses
E.g., (A  B)  (B  C  D)

 Resolution inference rule (for CNF):

li …  lk, m 1  …  mn
li  …  li-1  li+1  …  lk  m1  …  mj-1  mj+1 ...  mn

where li and mj are complementary literals.

E.g., P1,3  P2,2, P2,2
P1,3
 Resolution is sound and complete
for propositional logic

 Resolution

Soundness of resolution inference rule:

(li  …  li-1  li+1  …  lk)  li

mj  (m1  …  mj-1  mj+1 ...
 mn )
(li  …  li-1  li+1  …  lk)  (m1  …  mj-1  mj+1 ... 
mn)
 Conversion to CNF

B1,1  (P1,2  P2,1)β

1. Eliminate , replacing α  β with (α  β)(β  α).

(B1,1  (P1,2  P2,1))  ((P1,2  P2,1)  B1,1)

2. Eliminate , replacing α  β with α β.

(B1,1  P1,2  P2,1)  ((P1,2  P2,1)  B1,1)

3. Move  inwards using de Morgan's rules and double-

negation:
(B1,1  P1,2  P2,1)  ((P1,2  P2,1)  B1,1)

4. Apply distributivity law ( over ) and flatten:

(B1,1  P1,2  P2,1)  (P1,2  B1,1)  (P2,1  B1,1)
 Resolution Algorithm
 Proof by contradiction, i.e., show KBα unsatisfiable
 Resolution Example

 KB = (B1,1  (P1,2 P2,1))  B1,1 α = P1,2

Forward and Backward Chaining
 Horn Form (restricted)
KB = conjunction of Horn clauses
 Horn clause =
 proposition symbol; or
 (conjunction of symbols)  symbol
 E.g., C  (B  A)  (C  D  B)
 Modus Ponens (for Horn Form): complete for Horn KBs
α1, … ,αn, α 1  …  αn  β
β

 Can be used with forward chaining or backward

chaining.
 These algorithms are very natural and run in linear time
 Forward Chaining
 Idea: fire any rule whose premises are satisfied in the
KB,
 add its conclusion to the KB, until query is found
 Forward Chaining Algorithm

 Forward chaining is sound and complete for Horn KB

Forward Chaining example
Forward Chaining example
Forward Chaining example
Forward Chaining example
Forward Chaining example
Forward Chaining example
Forward Chaining example
Forward Chaining example
 Proof of Completeness
 FC derives every atomic sentence that is
entailed by KB
1. FC reaches a fixed point where no new atomic
sentences are derived
2. Consider the final state as a model m, assigning
true/false to symbols
3. Every clause in the original KB is true in m
a 1  …  ak  b
4. Hence m is a model of KB
5. If KB╞ q, q is true in every model of KB, including m
 Backward Chaining

Idea: work backwards from the query q:

to prove q by BC,
check if q is known already, or
prove by BC all premises of some rule concluding q

Avoid loops: check if new subgoal is already on the goal

stack

Avoid repeated work: check if new subgoal

1. has already been proved true, or
2. has already failed
Backward Chaining example
Backward Chaining example
Backward Chaining example
Backward Chaining example
Backward Chaining example
Backward Chaining example
Backward Chaining example
Backward Chaining example
Backward Chaining example
Backward Chaining example
 Forward vs. Backward chaining

 FC is data-driven, automatic, unconscious processing,

 e.g., object recognition, routine decisions.

 May do lots of work that is irrelevant to the goal

 BC is goal-driven, appropriate for problem-solving,

 e.g., Where are my keys? How do I get into a PhD
program?

 Complexity of BC can be much less than linear in size of

KB
Efficient Propositional Inference

Two families of efficient algorithms for propositional

inference:

Complete backtracking search algorithms

 DPLL algorithm (Davis, Putnam, Logemann, Loveland)

 Incomplete local search algorithms

 WalkSAT algorithm
 The DPLL Algorithm
Determine if an input propositional logic sentence (in CNF) is satisfiable.

Improvements over truth table enumeration:

1. Early termination
A clause is true if any literal is true.
A sentence is false if any clause is false.

2. Pure symbol heuristic

Pure symbol: always appears with the same "sign" in all clauses.
e.g., In the three clauses (A  B), (B  C), (C  A), A and
B are pure, C is impure.
Make a pure symbol literal true.

3. Unit clause heuristic

Unit clause: only one literal in the clause
The only literal in a unit clause must be true.
The DPLL Algorithm
 The WalkSAT Algorithm

 Incomplete, local search algorithm

 Evaluation function: The min-conflict heuristic of
minimizing the number of unsatisfied clauses
 Balance between greediness and randomness
The WalkSAT Algorithm
 Hard Satisfiability Problems

 Consider random 3-CNF sentences. e.g.,

(D  B  C)  (B  A  C)  (C 
B  E)  (E  D  B)  (B  E  C)

m = number of clauses
n = number of symbols

 Hard problems seem to cluster near m/n =

4.3 (critical point)
Hard Satisfiability problems
 Hard Satisfiability problems

 Median runtime for 100 satisfiable random 3-CNF

sentences, n = 50
 Inference-based agents in the
wumpus world
A wumpus-world agent using propositional logic:

P1,1
W1,1
Bx,y  (Px,y+1  Px,y-1  Px+1,y  Px-1,y)
Sx,y  (Wx,y+1  Wx,y-1  Wx+1,y  Wx-1,y)
W1,1  W1,2  …  W4,4
W1,1  W1,2
W1,1  W1,3
…

 64 distinct proposition symbols, 155 sentences

 Expressiveness limitation of
propositional logic
 KB contains "physics" sentences for every single
square

 For every time t and every location [x,y

t
],t
Lx,y  FacingRight  Forward  Lx+1,y

 Rapid proliferation of clauses

 Summary
 Logical agents apply inference to a knowledge base to derive new
information and make decisions
 Basic concepts of logic:
 syntax: formal structure of sentences
 semantics: truth of sentences wrt models
 entailment: necessary truth of one sentence given another
 inference: deriving sentences from other sentences
 soundness: derivations produce only entailed sentences
 completeness: derivations can produce all entailed sentences
 Wumpus world requires the ability to represent partial and negated
information, reason by cases, etc.
 Resolution is complete for propositional logic
Forward, backward chaining are linear-time, complete for Horn
clauses
 Propositional logic lacks expressive power
 Further Readings
1. Textbook1 Chapter 7.
2. C.L. Chang and R.C. Lee, Symbolic Logic and
Mechanical Theorem Proving, Acedemic Press,
1978.
3. L. Wos, R. Overbeek, E. Lusk, and J. Boyle
Automated Reasoning, McGraw-Hill, 1992.
4. P. Jackson, An Introduction to Expert Systems,
Addison-Wesley Publishing, 1999 (Chapter 5).