IB

Skill in sport
Sports,
exercise and
health science

Topic 5
Skill in sport 5.3.1 Distinguish between learning and
performance
Sub-topics

We measure learning by watching performance.

3. Principles of
skill learning

What is the difference between

Learning & Performance?
IB

Skill in sport
Sports,
exercise and
health science

Topic 5
Skill in sport 5.3.1 Distinguish between learning and
performance
Sub-topics
Learning is a relatively permanent change in
performance brought about by experience,
3. Principles of
skill learning excluding changes due to maturation and
degeneration.

Performance is a temporary occurrence,

fluctuating over time.

A change in performance over time is often used

to infer learning.
IBO February 2007
IB

Skill in sport
Sports,
exercise and
health science

Topic 5
Skill in sport 5.3.1 Distinguish between learning and
performance
Sub-topics

3. Principles of
Research/Thinking Task: Consider the
skill learning
differences/implications for a coach when
designing a training session for performance Vs
learning.
IB

Skill in sport
Sports,
exercise and
health science

Topic 5
Skill in sport 5.3.1 Distinguish between learning and
performance
Sub-topics
Is a skilled performer accurate and/or precise?
3. Principles of

What about a novice?

skill learning
IB

Skill in sport
Sports,
exercise and
health science

Topic 5
Skill in sport 5.3.2 Describe the phases (stages of learning)

Sub-topics
1) Cognitive/Verbal Stage
3. Principles of

Is the earliest phase of learning. There is quite

skill learning

a lot of trial and error in this stage, the

beginner trying out certain movements which
may be successful or fail.
Honeybourne et.al 2004
IB

Skill in sport
Sports,
exercise and
health science

Topic 5
Skill in sport 5.3.2 Describe the phases (stages of learning)

Sub-topics
2) The associative/motor/practice stage

3. Principles of
skill learning In this stage the performer practices, and
compares or associates the movements
produced with the mental image. This is the
stage at which feedback occurs and the learner
gradually becomes more aware of the
increasingly subtle and complex cues. During this
stage a vast improvement in performance
usually occurs.
Honeybourne et.al 2004
IB

Skill in sport
Sports,
exercise and
health science

Topic 5
Skill in sport 5.3.2 Describe the phases (stages of learning)

Sub-topics

3) The autonomous stage/final phase

3. Principles of
skill learning

Is the final stage of the skill-learning process.

Movements are becoming almost automatic,
with very little conscious thought. Any
distractions are largely ignored and the
performer is able to concentrate on more
peripheral strategies and tactics.

Honeybourne et.al 2004

IB

Skill in sport
Sports,
exercise and
health science

Topic 5
Skill in sport 5.3.2 Describe the phases (stages of learning)

Sub-topics

It is said that during the final stage motor

3. Principles of
skill learning
programmes are completely formed in the
long term memory and reaction time is
short.

For performers to stay in this phase they must

continuously refer back to the associative stage,
where practice ensures that motor programmes
are reinforced.
Honeybourne et.al 2004
IB

Skill in sport
Sports,
exercise and
health science

Topic 5
Skill in sport 5.3.3 Outline the different types of learning
curve
Sub-topics
 A learning curve is a way to evaluate the extent
to which a skill is being learnt by plotting
3. Principles of measures of practice versus measures of
performance.
skill learning
IB

Skill in sport
Sports,
exercise and
health science

Topic 5
Skill in sport 5.3.3 Outline the different types of learning
curve
Sub-topics
Linear
3. Principles of
 As practice increases, so does performance in a
skill learning
proportional relationship.
Units
Of Performance
 Features and possible reasons:
 Practice is successful
 Practice is beneficial
 High motivation
 Positive coaching
 Simplicity of the skill
Units of practice
Performer is interested in the skill
IB
Sports,
exercise and
health science Skill in sport

Topic2:
Core
Factors
Skill
5:
in sport 5.3.3 Outline the different types of learning curve

Sub topics  Positively accelerated curve

Indicates slight performance gains initially then rapid
3. Principles of
skill learning improvements in performance (ie. the task took a long
time to learn).
 Features and possible reasons:
 Increasing task complexity
 Information overload in
Units early stages
of  Learner gradually
performance
developing an interest

Units of practice
IB

Skill in sport
Sports,
exercise and
health science

Topic 5
Skill in sport 5.3.3 Outline the different types of learning
curve
Sub-topics
 After steady improvements in performance, a
3. Principles of
learning plateau is a stage where there appears to
skill learning
be little or no improvement. This can be due to:
 Lack of motivation
 Fatigue (over-training)
 Fundamentals learnt, next skill difficult
 Limited time devoted to practice
 Injury
 Coach unable to connect with athlete
Reference 1: Board of Studies NSW (1999). Personal development, health and physical education: Stage 6 syllabus.
Reference 2: Browne, S. (2001). HSC core 2 health priorities in Aust.: Summary quest. & sample HSC extended responses.
Reference 3: Browne, S., et. al. (2000). PDHPE application and inquiry: HSC course. Oxford University Press: Melbourne.
Reference 4: Buchanan, D. & Nemec, M. (2003). HSC PDHPE. McMillan Education Australia: Melbourne.
Reference 5: Charles Sturt University. NSW HSC online. Available: http://hsc.csu.edu.au/pdhpe/
IB
Sports,
exercise and
health science Skill in sport

Negatively accelerated curve

Topic 5:
Skill in sport

Sub topics  Indicates rapid initial improvements then lesser gains

from practice (learning slowed).
3. Principles of
skill learning  Features and possible reasons:
 Practice highly successful,
but then tapered off
Units  Physical fatigue
of  Loss of interest
performance  Loss of motivation
 Limited ability of coach to
assist
 Substandard equipment

Units of practice
Slide reference: Reference 1: Board of Studies NSW (1999). Personal development, health and physical education: Stage 6 syllabus.
Ruskin, Reference 2: Browne, S. (2001). HSC core 2 health priorities in Aust.: Summary quest. & sample HSC extended responses.
R., Proctor, K. & Neeves, D. (2001). Outcomes 2: Reference 3: Browne, S., et. al. (2000). PDHPE application and inquiry: HSC course. Oxford University Press: Melbourne.
Personal Development, Health & Physical Reference 4: Buchanan, D. & Nemec, M. (2003). HSC PDHPE. McMillan Education Australia: Melbourne.
Education HSC Course John Reference 5: Charles Sturt University. NSW HSC online. Available: http://hsc.csu.edu.au/pdhpe/
Wiley & Sons, Milton.
IB
Sports,
exercise and
health science Skill in sport

Core 2:
Topic 5:

Skill in sport Learning plateau

Sub topics  This indicates little learning is taking place for a short
time and then skill attainment continues.
3. Principles of
 Features and possible reasons:
skill learning  Lack of practice
 Declining interest
 Lack of drive or motivation
Units  Inability of coach to provide
of skills and knowledge
performance  Injury
 A poor grasp of the
fundamentals

Units of practice
Slide reference: Reference 1: Board of Studies NSW (1999). Personal development, health and physical education: Stage 6 syllabus.
Ruskin, Reference 2: Browne, S. (2001). HSC core 2 health priorities in Aust.: Summary quest. & sample HSC extended responses.
R., Proctor, K. & Neeves, D. (2001). Outcomes 2: Reference 3: Browne, S., et. al. (2000). PDHPE application and inquiry: HSC course. Oxford University Press: Melbourne.
Personal Development, Health & Physical Reference 4: Buchanan, D. & Nemec, M. (2003). HSC PDHPE. McMillan Education Australia: Melbourne.
Education HSC Course John Reference 5: Charles Sturt University. NSW HSC online. Available: http://hsc.csu.edu.au/pdhpe/
Wiley & Sons, Milton.
IB
Sports,
exercise and
health science Skill in sport

5.3.4 Discuss factors that contribute to

Core 2:
Topic 5:

Skill in sport
different rates of learning
Sub topics

 Research task: Answer the question above with

3. Principles of
skill learning consideration of the following.

 Physical maturation
 Physical fitness
 Motivation
IB
Sports,
exercise and
health science Skill in sport

Core 2:
Topic 5:

Skill in sport
5.3.5 Define the concept of transfer

Sub topics

 Transfer in skill acquisition - is the influence of

3. Principles of
skill learning learning and/or performance of one skill on the
learning and/or performance of another.

 proactive transfer -If the transfer influences a skill

yet to be learned or performed.

 retroactive transfer- if it influences the performance

of a previous learnt skill.
Honeybourne et.al 2004
IB
Sports,
exercise and
health science Skill in sport

Core 2:
Topic 5:

Skill in sport
5.3.5 Define the concept of transfer

Sub topics

 Positive transfer -One skill can help in the learning

3. Principles of
skill learning or performance of another skill.

 Negative transfer – One skill may hinder the

learning or performance of another skill.
Honeybourne et.al 2004
IB
Sports,
exercise and
health science Skill in sport

Core 2:
Topic 5:

Skill in sport
5.3.6 Outline the types of transfer

 Positive transfer –
Sub topics

3. Principles of
skill learning
 A player involved in team games, such as football
or hockey, would be able to transfer their spatial
awareness, tactical understanding of passing from
one game to another.
Wesson et.al 2005
IB
Sports,
exercise and
health science Skill in sport

Core 2:
Topic 5:

Skill in sport
5.3.6 Outline the types of transfer

Sub topics
 Negative
3. Principles of
skill learning

 The familiar example of tennis having a negative

effect on badminton is often quoted, but although the
two games have similar aspects, tactics, use of space,
court, net, racket, hand eye coordination etc, the wrist
arm movement are very different.

Wesson et.al 2005

IB
Sports,
exercise and
health science Skill in sport

Core 2:
Topic 5:

Skill in sport
5.3.6 Outline the types of transfer

Sub topics

 Zero Transfer
3. Principles of
skill learning

 When one skill/task has no effect on the

performance of another skill,

 e.g. swimming on horse riding, zero transfer is said

to occur.

 Wesson et.al 2005

IB
Sports,
exercise and
health science Skill in sport

Core 2:
Topic 5:

Skill in sport
5.3.6 Outline the types of positive transfer

Sub topics

3. Principles of
 Skill to Skill
skill learning

• Transfer the same motion from one sport to

another sport.

• Throwing a ball and then throwing a javalin

 Wesson et.al 2005

IB
Sports,
exercise and
health science Skill in sport

Core 2:
Topic 5:

Skill in sport
5.3.6 Outline the types of transfer

Sub topics  Bilateral transfer

Occurs when learning is transferred from limb

3. Principles of
skill learning 
to limb
 i.e. from the right leg to the left leg. When a
basketball coach tries to develop their players
weaker dribbling hand by relating it to earlier skills
learnt they are involved in bi-lateral transfer.
 Involves the player in transferring both motor
proficiency and levels of cognitive involvement.
 Wesson et.al 2005
IB
Sports,
exercise and
health science Skill in sport

Core 2:
Topic 5:

Skill in sport
5.3.6 Outline the types of transfer

Sub topics

 Practice to performance
3. Principles of
skill learning

 Repeat a complete skill over and over to perfect

the outcome.

 Using a batting machine for hitting in baseball.

Wesson et.al 2005

IB
Sports,
exercise and
health science Skill in sport

Core 2:
Topic 5:

Skill in sport
5.3.6 Outline the types of transfer

Sub topics

 Abilities to Skill
3. Principles of
skill learning

• Practice a specific movement to improve

performance.

• Jump on one leg to improve push off blocks for

sprint start
IB
Sports,
exercise and
health science Skill in sport

Core 2:
Topic 5:

Skill in sport
5.3.6 Outline the types of transfer

Sub topics

 Stage to Stage:
3. Principles of
skill learning

 When a coach develops specific practices/skills

which are very realistic and relevant to the real
game situation in order to try and help players in
future games, this is referred to as near transfer.
(also called – near transfer)

 Three on Three to real game.

Wesson et.al 2005
IB
Sports,
exercise and
health science Skill in sport

Core 2:
Topic 5:

Skill in sport
5.3.6 Outline the types of transfer

Sub topics

 Principles to skills
3. Principles of
skill learning

 Analyse a skill and determine what principles of

movement apply. Very cognitive.

 Learning that long levers aid throwing – use this to

improve your throw.
Wesson et.al 2005
IB
Sports,
exercise and
health science Skill in sport

Core 2:
Topic 5:

Skill in sport
5.3.6 Outline the types of transfer

Sub topics

 Activity: Give an example of positive, negative and

3. Principles of
skill learning zero as they apply to:

 Skill to skill
 Practice to performance
 Abilities to skills
 Bilateral
 Stage to stage
 Principles to skills
IB
Sports,
exercise and
health science Skill in sport

Core 2:
Topic 5:

Skill in sport
5.3.7 Outline the different types of practice

Sub topics
 Distributed practice: is seen as practice with
3. Principles of relatively long breaks or rest periods between each
attempt or block of attempts
skill learning

 Better when the individual is:

 Beginner

 Less experienced

 Limited preparation (physical/mental)

 Less motivated
Wesson et.al 2004
IB
Sports,
exercise and
health science Skill in sport

Core 2:
Topic 5:

Skill in sport
5.3.7 Outline the different types of practice

Sub topics
 Massed practice: is seen as being almost continuous
3. Principles of practice with very little or no rest at all between
attempts or blocks of trials.
skill learning

 Better when the individual is:

 Experienced

 Older

 Fitter

 More motivated
Wesson et.al 2004
IB
Sports,
exercise and
health science Skill in sport

Core 2:
Topic 5:

Skill in sport
5.3.7 Outline the different types of practice

Sub topics
 Fixed (drill) practice:
3. Principles of
skill learning
 a specific movement is practiced repeatedly, often referred
to as a drill. This type of practice is ideal for skills that are
always performed in the same way, that do not require
adapting to the environment. Closed, interactive and
coactive skills tend to require fixed practice to allow the
motor sequence to be perfected, since they will remain the
same in practice as they will in competition .

http://www.brianmac.co.uk/continuum.htm
IB
Sports,
exercise and
health science Skill in sport

Core 2:
Topic 5:

Skill in sport
5.3.7 Outline the different types of practice

Sub topics
 Variable practice:
3. Principles of
skill learning
 practicing a skill in a variety of different contexts and
experiencing the full range of situations in which the
technique or tactic might be used in competition. The
learner applies the skill to a number of different
environments in practice, allowing both the development
of the skill and the ability to adapt the skill to a range of
possible situations. This is vital for open and interactive
skills

http://www.brianmac.co.uk/continuum.htm
IB
Sports,
exercise and
health science Skill in sport

Core 2:
Topic 5:

Skill in sport
5.3.7 Outline the different types of practice

Sub topics
 Variable practice:
3. Principles of
skill learning
 Skills practiced in new/different situations.
 Useful for open skills.
 Helps the development of schema.
 Helps performer adapt to meet the demands of the
situation.
 Practice should be similar to real game situation.

Wesson et.al 2004

IB
Sports,
exercise and
health science Skill in sport

Core 2:
Topic 5:

Skill in sport
5.3.7 Outline the different types of practice

Sub topics
 Mental practice:

3. Principles of
skill learning
 Is the mental or cognitive rehearsal of a skill without
actual physical movement.
 In the early stages of learning (cognitive phase) mental
rehearsal is initially seen as the learner going through a
skill/task and building up a mental picture of the expected
performance in their mind (cognitive process).
 Advanced performers can use mental practice to rehearse
possible alternative strategies or complex actions
/sequences, thus almost pre-programming their effector
systems and possibly helping with response preparation,
reactions and anticipation.
Wesson et.al 2004
IB
Sports,
exercise and
health science Skill in sport

Core 2:
Topic 5:

Skill in sport
5.3.7 Outline the different types of practice

Sub topics
 Mental practice:

3. Principles of
skill learning
 Top skiers use it to rehearse turns, imagine the approach
to gates and certain aspects of terrain.

 A traditionally held view has been that through mental

practice a performer could slightly stimulate the
neuromuscular systems involved in activities and thus
stimulate the movement.

Wesson et.al 2004

IB
Sports,
exercise and
health science Skill in sport

Core 2:
Topic 5:

Skill in sport
5.3.8 Explain the different types of presentation

Sub topics
 Whole:
• The whole method of learning is when the activity or
3. Principles of skill is presented in total and practised as full/entire skilled
skill learning
movement or activity.
 It is argued that if a whole approach is used then a learner
is able to develop their kinaesthetic awareness or total feel
for the activity.
 This approach is seen as a more effective use of time and
should be used whenever possible particularly when skills
have low levels of complexity and high levels of
organisation, e.g. bench press in weight training. In this
case the components of the skill are unable to be broken
down.
Wesson et.al 2004
IB
Sports,
exercise and
health science Skill in sport

Core 2:
Topic 5:

Skill in sport
5.3.8 Explain the different types of presentation

Sub topics
 Part:

3. Principles of
skill learning
• Skills which are very complex but low in organisation lend
themselves to being practised and learned more effectively
by the parts method. An additional consideration is again
how interrelated or independent the sub-routines are.
• Activities such as freestyle are not too complex but low in
organisation lend themselves to being taught by the part
method.
• The arms action, breathing pattern and leg action can be
analysed and taught individually.
Wesson et.al 2004
IB
Sports,
exercise and
health science Skill in sport

Core 2:
Topic 5:

Skill in sport
5.3.8 Explain the different types of presentation

Sub topics
 Part:

3. Principles of
skill learning
• Activities such as freestyle are not too complex but low in
organisation lend themselves to being taught by the part
method.
• The arms action, breathing pattern and leg action can be
analysed and taught individually.
• However, if the beginner does not experience the whole
stroke there is possibility that the kinaesthetic feel for the
whole action could be lost.
Wesson et.al 2004
IB
Sports,
exercise and
health science Skill in sport

Core 2:
Topic 5:

Skill in sport
5.3.8 Explain the different types of presentation

Sub topics
 Whole-part:-whole

3. Principles of
skill learning
• A variation on whole or part method is often used with
performers in the Cognitive/Associative stages is whole-
part-whole practice. The teacher/coach introduces the
complete skill, highlighting the important elements. The
performer then attempts to carry out the skill. As a result
of any problems or faults observed the teacher then
breaks the whole skill down into sub-routines in order to
allow the learner to practice appropriate areas of difficulty.
• Once the teacher is satisfied that the problem areas have
been mastered the parts are integrated back into the
whole skill.
Wesson et.al 2004
IB
Sports,
exercise and
health science Skill in sport

Core 2:
Topic 5:

Skill in sport
5.3.8 Explain the different types of presentation

Sub topics
 Whole-part-whole:

3. Principles of
skill learning
 Activity: Give an example of the use of Whole-Part-
whole Method in the sport of your choice.
IB
Sports,
exercise and
health science Skill in sport

Core 2:
Topic 5:

Skill in sport
5.3.8 Explain the different types of presentation

Sub topics
 Progressive part:

3. Principles of
skill learning
 The progressive part method is where earlier independent
actions change their form to become something totally
different.

 A learner taught complex skills by the progressive part

method benefits from the positive aspects of both part and
whole methods.

Wesson et.al 2004

IB
Sports,
exercise and
health science Skill in sport

Core 2:
Topic 5:

Skill in sport
5.3.8 Explain the different types of presentation

Sub topics
 Progressive part:

3. Principles of
skill learning
 A gymnast coach trying to develop a gymnast’s routine
would often follow the progressive part method.

 All the relatively complex but independent parts of the

routine e.g. handstand, cartwheel, hand spring,
somersault e.t.c. are learnt in and practised in isolation,
but then linked together in small units in order that the
gymnast can experience and learnt how to fluently
sequence individual skills together.

Wesson et.al 2004

IB
Sports,
exercise and
health science Skill in sport

Core 2:
Topic 5:

Skill in sport
5.3.9 Outline the spectrum of teaching styles

Sub topics
 Command:

3. Principles of
skill learning
 This is the authoritarian style. Within this approach there is
little consideration given to the individual with all learners
treated very much in the same way.
 This style is thought to inhibit cognitive learning as
thinking and questioning are not encouraged by the
teacher.
 The teacher is in full control of decision making process
and the learner is not allowed to develop responsibility for
their own learning.
Wesson et.al 2004
IB
Sports,
exercise and
health science Skill in sport

Core 2:
Topic 5:

Skill in sport
5.3.9 Outline the spectrum of teaching styles

Sub topics
 Command:

3. Principles of
skill learning
 This can result in the learner becoming a clone of the
teacher.
 It has limitations for developing open skills as these
require the performer to adapt and make their own
decisions.
 It is useful when working with beginners, large groups and
in dangerous and limited time situations where safety is
paramount.
 Wesson et.al 2004
IB
Sports,
exercise and
health science Skill in sport

Core 2:
Topic 5:

Skill in sport
5.3.9 Outline the spectrum of teaching styles

Sub topics
 Reciprocal:

3. Principles of
skill learning
 Although what is taught is still determined by the teacher,
it allows learners to take slightly more responsibility and
become more involved in the decision making process.
 The sessions are structured in order that the objectives are
clearly stated to the learners.
 This situation lends itself to greater social interaction than
the command style.
 The teacher is still required to give regular feedback and
monitor progress.
 Wesson et.al 2004
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Sports,
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health science Skill in sport

Core 2:
Topic 5:

Skill in sport
5.3.9 Outline the spectrum of teaching styles

Sub topics
 Reciprocal:

3. Principles of
skill learning
 This style of teaching is useful in developing a learner’s:

 Self image
 Confidence
 Communication skills (encourage interaction)
 Cognitive strategies (encourage decision making)
 Wesson et.al 2004
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Sports,
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health science Skill in sport

Core 2:
Topic 5:

Skill in sport
5.3.9 Outline the spectrum of teaching styles

Sub topics
 Problem-solving approach

3. Principles of
skill learning
 The problem solving approach encourages students to be
creative and develop their individual cognitive and
performance processes.

 According to their different sizes, shapes, abilities and

capabilities learners can approach problems set by their
teacher individually.
 Wesson et.al 2004
IB
Sports,
exercise and
health science Skill in sport

Core 2:
Topic 5:

Skill in sport
5.3.9 Outline the spectrum of teaching styles

Sub topics

 Problem-solving approach
3. Principles of
skill learning

 For example:

 Find a way to dribble past your opponent in a 1 on 1

situation.
 How could you gain the attack from this situation?

 Wesson et.al 2004

IB
Sports,
exercise and
health science Skill in sport

Core 2:
Topic 5:

Skill in sport
5.3.9 Outline the spectrum of teaching styles

Sub topics
 Problem-solving approach

3. Principles of
skill learning  This “cognitive perspective” approach is believed to
have long term benefits as learners are
encouraged to think about, understand and adapt
performance according to a variety of situations.
 Variety of practice is important for positive transfer
and the development of schemas. It also allows
learners to deal with new or novel situations.

 Wesson et.al 2004