Chap14: Metal Forging Processes and Equipment

Forging is a basic process in which the workpiece is shaped by compressive forces applied through various dies
and tooling.

• This chapter describes the fundamentals of forging and related processes, including design and economic
considerations.

• Open-die forging, impression-die and closed-die forging operations for producing more intricate shapes are
presented.

• Various forging operations, such as heading, piercing, coining, swaging, and cold extrusion, are then
introduced.

• Factors involved in forging defects and die failures are explained.

• The economics of forging, as it relates to process selection, is also discussed.

• A review of the design of parts to be forged, guidelines for die design and manufacturing, and selection of die
materials and lubricants in forging operations.
Why Forging: Because the metal flow in a die and the material’s grain structure can be controlled, forged parts have good
strength and toughness, and are very reliable for highly stressed and critical applications

Figure. Grain flow in a part made by three different processes. (a) Casting, (b) Machining from a blank, and (c) forging.

Cold forging and Hot forging:

Forging may be carried out at room temperature (cold forging) or at elevated temperatures (warm or hot forging),
depending on the crystallization temperature of the material.
• Cold forging requires higher forces, because of the higher strength of the workpiece material, which also must
possess sufficient ductility at room temperature to be able to undergo the required deformation without
cracking. Cold-forged parts have good surface finish and dimensional accuracy.
• Hot forging requires lower forces, but the dimensional accuracy and surface finish of the parts are not as good
as those in cold forging.
14.2 Open-die Forging

Open-die forging is the simplest forging operation, in which a metal workpiece (blank) is placed between two flat
dies, and squeezed by a compressional force, a process called upsetting or flat-die forging. The die surfaces may
have shallow cavities or features to produce relatively simple shapes.

Figure. (a) Solid cylindrical billet upset between two flat dies. (b) Uniform deformation of the billet without friction. (c)
Deformation with friction; note barreling of the billet caused by friction forces at the billet–die interfaces.

Barreling is caused primarily by frictional forces that oppose the outward flow of the workpiece at the die
interfaces; thus, it can be minimized by using an effective lubrication.
Barreling in hot forging:
Barreling also can develop in upsetting hot workpieces between cold dies. The material at the die surfaces cools
rapidly, while the rest remains relatively hot; consequently, the material at the top and bottom of the workpiece has
higher resistance to deformation than the material at the center. As a result, the central portion of the workpiece
expands laterally to a greater extent than do the ends. Barreling from thermal effects can be reduced or eliminated
by using heated dies.
Cogging process:
Cogging, also called drawing out, is an open-die forging operation in which the thickness of a bar is reduced by
successive forging steps at specific intervals. Because the contact area between the die and the workpiece is small, a
long section of a bar can thus be reduced in thickness without requiring large forces or heavy machinery. Cogging
of larger workpieces is usually done using mechanized equipment and computer controls, in which lateral and
vertical movements of the dies are coordinated to produce the desired part shape.
Cogging process:

Figure. (a) Schematic illustration of a cogging operation on a rectangular bar. Reduction in thickness is accompanied by
barreling. (b) Reducing the diameter of a bar by open-die forging; note the movements of the dies and the workpiece. (c) The
thickness of a ring being reduced by open-die forging.
Forging Force:
The forging force, F, in an open-die forging operation on a solid cylindrical workpiece can be estimated as:

2𝜇𝑟  
𝐹=𝑌 𝑓 𝜋 𝑟 2 (1+ )
3h

Yf the flow stress of the material,

μ the coefficient of friction between the workpiece and the die,

r the instantaneous radius of the workpiece,
h the instantaneous height of the workpiece.

Friction Hill. If the workpiece-die interface is frictionless, then the die

pressure is equal to the flow stress of the material. If friction is present, then
calculation of die pressure in upsetting process could be as follows:

2 𝜇( 𝑟0 − 𝑟 )  
𝑃=𝑌𝑒𝑥𝑝 (
h )
Exp. 14.1. Calculation of Forging Force in Upsetting

A solid cylindrical workpiece made of 304 stainless steel is 150 mm in diameter and 100 mm high. It is reduced in
height by 50%, at room temperature, by open-die forging with flat dies. Assume that the coefficient of friction is
0.2.
2𝜇𝑟   2 𝜇( 𝑟0 − 𝑟 )  
2
𝐹=𝑌 𝑓 𝜋 𝑟 (1+
3h
) 𝑃=𝑌𝑒𝑥𝑝 (
h )
Table. 2.3. Values of K and n for some steel materials
Material K (MPa) n
Low C, annealed 530 0.26
1020, annealed 745 0.20
4135, annealed 1015 0.17
4135, cold rolled 1100 0.14
4340, annealed 640 0.15
304 stainless, annealed 1275 0.45
410 stainless, annealed 960 0.10
Prob. 14.35. Calculation of Forging Force in Upsetting

To what thickness can a solid cylinder of 1020 steel that is 25 mm in diameter and 50 mm high be forged in a press
that can generate 445 kN?

2𝜇𝑟   2 𝜇( 𝑟0 − 𝑟 )  
2
𝐹=𝑌 𝑓 𝜋 𝑟 (1+
3h
) 𝑃=𝑌𝑒𝑥𝑝 (
h )
Table. 2.3. Values of K and n for some steel materials
Material K (MPa) n
Low C, annealed 530 0.26
1020, annealed 745 0.20
4135, annealed 1015 0.17
4135, cold rolled 1100 0.14
4340, annealed 640 0.15
304 stainless, annealed 1275 0.45
410 stainless, annealed 960 0.10
Prob. 14.35. Calculation of Forging Force in Upsetting function [E]=Prob_14_15(hf,Yf)
clc
2𝜇𝑟   2 𝜇( 𝑟0 − 𝑟 )  
2
𝐹=𝑌 𝑓 𝜋 𝑟 (1+
3h
) 𝑃=𝑌𝑒𝑥𝑝 ( h ) ho=50
hf(1,1)=20
i=1

while hf(i,1)<ho
Yf(i,1)=745*(log(50/hf(i,1)))^0.2;
Res(i,1)=Yf(i,1)*(24.5/hf(i,1))*(1+11.8/hf(i,1)^1.5);
error(i,1)=abs(445-Res(i,1));
if error(i,1)<2
break
end
j=i;
i=i+1;
hf(i,1)=hf(j,1)+0.1;
end

jj=j
xlswrite('Results.xlsx',hf,'A2:A200');
xlswrite('Results.xlsx',Yf,'B2:B200');
xlswrite('Results.xlsx',Res,'C2:C200');
xlswrite('Results.xlsx',error,'D2:D200');

end
Prob. 14.35. Calculation of Forging Force in Upsetting function [E]=Prob_14_15(hf,Yf)
clc
2𝜇𝑟   2 𝜇( 𝑟0 − 𝑟 )  
2
𝐹=𝑌 𝑓 𝜋 𝑟 (1+
3h
) 𝑃=𝑌𝑒𝑥𝑝 ( h ) ho=50
hf(1,1)=20
i=1

while hf(i,1)<ho
Yf(i,1)=745*(log(50/hf(i,1)))^0.2;
Res(i,1)=Yf(i,1)*(24.5/hf(i,1))*(1+11.8/hf(i,1)^1.5);
error(i,1)=abs(445-Res(i,1));
if error(i,1)<2
break
end
j=i;
i=i+1;
hf(i,1)=hf(j,1)+0.1;
end

jj=j
xlswrite('Results.xlsx',hf,'A2:A200');
xlswrite('Results.xlsx',Yf,'B2:B200');
xlswrite('Results.xlsx',Res,'C2:C200');
xlswrite('Results.xlsx',error,'D2:D200');

end
14.3. Closed-die Forging

In impression-die forging, the workpiece takes the shape of the die cavity while being forged between two shaped
dies. This process is usually carried out at elevated temperatures, in order to lower the forging forces and develop
enhanced ductility of the workpiece. During deformation, some of the material flows outward and forms a flash.
Closed-die with inserts
Instead of being made as one piece, dies may be made of several pieces (segmented), including die inserts, and
particularly for complex part shapes. The inserts can easily be replaced in the case of wear or failure in a
particular region of the die, and are usually made of stronger and harder materials.
Preforming Operations:
These operations are typically used to enhance the distribution of the material into various regions of the blank,
using simple dies of various contours. In fullering, material is distributed away from a region in the dies. In edging,
it is gathered into a localized region. The part is then formed into a rough shape by a process called blocking, using
blocker dies. The final operation is the finishing of the forging in impression dies, which give the forging its final
shape; the flash is later removed by a trimming operation.
Preforming Operations:
In fullering, material is distributed away from a region in the dies. In edging, it is gathered into a localized region.
The final operation is the finishing of the forging in impression dies, which give the forging its final shape; the flash
is later removed by a trimming operation.
Preforming Operations:
Sequence of forging: In fullering, material is distributed away from a region in the dies. In edging, it is gathered
into a localized region. The part is then formed into a rough shape by a process called blocking, using blocker dies.
The final operation is the finishing of the forging in impression dies, which give the forging its final shape; the flash
is later removed by a trimming operation.
Precision-die Forging.
In flash-less of precision-die forging, a flash does not form (hence the term flashless forging), and the workpiece
completely fills the die cavity. The accurate control of the blank volume and proper die design are essential to
producing a forging with the required dimensional tolerances. Undersized blanks prevent the complete filling of
the die cavity and conversely, oversized blanks generate excessive pressures and may cause dies to fail
prematurely or the machine to jam.
Precision forging requires (a) special and more complex dies, (b) precise control of the blank’s volume and shape,
and (c) accurate positioning of the blank in the die cavity.
Also, because of the higher forces required to obtain fine details on the part, precision forging requires higher
capacity equipment.
Although steel and titanium can be precision forged, aluminum and magnesium alloys are particularly suitable,
because of the relatively low forging loads and temperatures that they require.
General Characteristics of Forging Processes
Process Advantages Limitations

Limited to simple shapes; difficult to hold

Simple and inexpensive dies; wide range of part close tolerances; machining to final shape
Open die sizes; good strength characteristics; generally for necessary; low production rate; relatively
small quantities poor utilization of material; high degree of
skill required

Relatively good utilization of material; generally

better properties than open-die forgings; good High die cost, not economical for small
Closed die
dimensional accuracy; high production rates; quantities; machining often necessary
good reproducibility

Close dimensional tolerances; very thin webs and High forging forces, intricate dies, and
Precision flanges possible; machining generally not provision for removing forging from dies
necessary; very good material utilization  
14.4 Various Forging Operations

Coining. A closed-die forging process, was originally used in the minting of coins, medallions, and jewelry, but
currently is used to produce a wide range of parts with high accuracy. The details of the dies are imparted in blanks
by the forging pressure. The blank is coined in a closed-die cavity. Marking parts with letters and numbers also can
be done rapidly through coining.

Lubricants should not be applied in coining, because they can become entrapped in the die cavities and, being
incompressible, prevent the full reproduction of die-surface details and surface finish.
14.4 Various Forging Operations

Heading. is essentially an upsetting operation, performed on the end of a rod or wire in order to increase the cross-
section. Typical products are nails, bolt heads, screws, rivets, and various other fasteners. Heading can be carried
out cold, warm, or hot.
14.4 Various Forging Operations

Heading. An important consideration in heading is the tendency for the bar to buckle if its unsupported length-to-diameter
ratio is too high. This ratio usually is limited to less than 3:1, but with appropriate dies, it can be higher; for example, higher
ratios can be accommodated if the diameter of the die cavity is not more than 1.5 times the bar diameter.

Heading operations are performed on machines called headers, which usually are highly automated, with production rates of
hundreds of pieces per minute for small parts.
14.4 Various Forging Operations

Piercing. This is a process of indenting (but not breaking through) the surface of a workpiece with a punch, in order
to produce a cavity or an impression. The workpiece may be confined in a container, such as a die cavity or may be
unconstrained. The extent of surface deformation of the workpiece depends on how much it is constrained from
flowing freely as the punch descends.

The piercing force depends on:

(a) the cross-sectional area and the tip geometry of the punch,

(b) the strength of the workpiece, and

(c) friction at the punch–workpiece interfaces.

Manufacture of a Stepped Pin by Heading and Piercing Operations

SAE 1008 steel is used as a portion of a roller assembly to adjust the position of a car seat. To produce the part, first, a
cylindrical blank is extruded in two operations, followed by upsetting. The upsetting operation uses a conical cross-section in the
die to produce the preform, and is oriented such that material is concentrated at the top of the part in order to ensure proper die
filling. After impression-die forming, a piercing operation is performed which forms the bore.
Disadvantages of Forging

1. Rapid oxidation in forging of metal surface at high temperature results in scaling which wears the dies.

2. The close tolerances in forging operations are difficult to maintain.

3. Forging is limited to simple shapes and has limitation for parts having undercuts etc.

4. Some materials are not readily worked by forging.

5. The initial cost of forging dies and the cost of their maintenance is high.

6. The metals gets cracked or distorted if worked below a specified temperature limit.

7. The maintenance cost of forging dies is also very high.

8. Internal defects also may develop from (a) nonuniform deformation of the material in the die cavity, (b)
temperature gradients developed throughout the workpiece during forging, and (c) microstructural changes
caused by phase transformations.
Defects in Forging Parts
1) Unfilled Section: As the name implies in this type of defect, some of the forging section remain unfilled. This is
due to poor design of die or poor forging technique. This is also due to less raw material or poor heating. This
defect can be removed by proper die design, proper availability of raw material and proper heating.
Also, incomplete forging penetration can arise due to incomplete forging. It is due to light or rapid hammer blow.
This defect can be removed by proper control on forging press.
Defects in Forging Parts
1) Unfilled Section: If there is an insufficient volume of material to fill the die cavity completely, the web may
buckle during forging and develop laps. Conversely, if the web is too thick, the excess material flows past the
already formed portions of the forging and develops internal cracks.
Defects in Forging Parts
2) Cold Shut: Cold shut includes small cracks at corners. These defects occur due to improper design of forging
die. It is also due to sharp corner, and excessive chilling in forging product. The fillet radius of the die should
be increase to remove these defects.
Defects in Forging Parts
3) Scale Pits: These are formed by squeezing of scale into the metal surface during forging. Scale pits are due to
improper cleaning of forged surface. This defect generally is associated with forging in open environment. It is
irregular deputations on the surface of forging. It can be removed by proper cleaning of forged surface.
Defects in Forging Parts
4) Die Shift: Die shift is caused by misalignment of upper die and lower die. When both these dies are not
properly aligned the forged product does not get proper dimensions. This defect can be removed by proper
alignment using half notch on upper die and half on lower die so at the time of alignment, both these notches
will be matched.
Defects in Forging Parts
5) Flakes: These are internal cracks occur due to improper cooling of forge product. When the forge product
cooled quickly, these cracks generally occur which can reduced the strength of forge product. This defect can be
removed by proper cooling.
Defects if Forging Parts
Grain flow is a directional orientation of metal grains and any inclusions that have been deformed by forging.
Individual grains are elongated in the direction of the metal flow or plastic deformation. More importantly,
nonmetallic inclusions, particles and other imperfections inherited from the casting process (forging vs casting) are
elongated in the direction of grain flow.

6) Improper Grain Growth: This defect occurs due to improper flow

of metal in casting which changes predefine grain structure of
product. It can be removed by proper die design.
Defects if Forging Parts
Desirable properties associated with retarding crack propagation can see significant differences depending on the
grain flow and the direction of the moving crack. So, properties like fatigue strength, impact toughness and
ductility, which are measures of a material’s resistance to cracking (measured after fracture), can be significantly
improved if the crack propagation direction and the grain flow are properly aligned. The optimum alignment
occurs when the maximum principal stress (perpendicular to a potential crack or fracture) is aligned with the grain-
flow lines.
Defects in Forging Parts
7) Surface Cracking:
Surface cracking occurs due to excessive working on surfaces at low temperature. In this defect, so many cracks
arise on the workpiece. This defect can be removed by proper control on working temperature.
Defects in Forging Parts
8) Residual Stresses in Forging: This defect occurs due to improper cooling of forged part. Too much rapid
cooling is main causes of this type of defects. This can be removed by slow cooling of forged part.
Cause: Inhomogeneous deformation and improper cooling (quenching) of forging.
Remedy: Slow cooling of the forging in furnace or under ash over a period of time.
Die Features: The terminology for forging dies is the following figure.
1. Parting line: For most forgings, the parting line is located at the largest cross-section of the part. For simple
symmetrical shapes, the parting line is usually a single plane and at the center of the forging; for more complex
shapes, the line may not lie in a single plane. The dies are then designed in such a way that they make proper
contact with the workpiece, while avoiding side thrust forces and maintaining die alignment during forging.
Die Features: The terminology for forging dies is the following figure.
2. Land and Gutter: Formation of metal flash is an important part of impression die forging manufacture.
First, flash provides a way for excess material from the work stock to exit the forging die. If this material could
not escape during the compression the build up of pressure, as the volume of work metal exceeded the volume of
the die cavity, could easily crack the die. Flash, while allowing material to escape, does increase the pressure
within the die cavity. Flash must travel through a narrow passage, called land, before it opens up into a gutter.
Die Features: The terminology for forging dies is the following figure.
2. Land and Gutter: After sufficiently constraining lateral flow to ensure proper die filling, the flash material is
allowed to flow into a gutter, so that the extra flash does not increase the forging load excessively. A general
guideline for flash thickness is 3% of the maximum thickness (vertical dimension) of the forging. The length of
the land is usually two to five times the flash thickness.
The pressure within the forging's die cavity is often controlled by varying the width of land.
Die Features: The terminology for forging dies is the following figure.
3. Draft angles: These angles are necessary in almost all forging dies in order to facilitate removal of the forging.
Upon cooling, the forging shrinks both radially and longitudinally; internal draft angles (about 7°– 10°) are
therefore made larger than external ones (about 3°–5°).
Die Features: The terminology for forging dies is the following figure.
4. Fillets and Corners: Selection of the proper radii for corners and fillets is important in ensuring smooth flow
of the metal into the die cavity and improving die life. Small radii generally are undesirable, because of their
adverse effect on metal flow and their tendency to wear rapidly (as a result of stress concentration and thermal
cycling). Small fillet radii also can cause fatigue cracking of the dies. As a general rule, these radii should be as
large as can be permitted by the design of the forging.
Die Features: The terminology for forging dies is the following figure.
5. Ribs and Webs: A rib is a section that runs perpendicular to the forging plane as determined by the parting
line. Long narrow ribs are harder to fill and require more forces, increasing the width of a long rib will better
facilitate the filling of the rib with material during the process. A web is a portion of the metal forging that runs
parallel to the forging plane. The thickness of webs can be minimized as much as practical. When designing a
forging die, web thickness should not be too small or else there may be trouble completely filling the web with
metal.

Webs that are too thin may also cool faster than the rest
of the metal forging, the resulting shrinkage could cause
tears or warping of the part.
Die Features: The terminology for forging dies is the following figure.
6. Allowance in Dimensions: Finishing processes, such as sizing, create less but very accurate geometric change
to the forging in the final stages of part manufacture. As with the patterns used in casting, allowances are provided
in forging-die design, when machining or grinding of the forging is necessary in order to impart final desired
dimensions and surface finish. Machining allowance should be provided at flanges, holes, and mating surfaces.
Lubrication: In the hot forging processes, the dies are lubricated and cooled by spraying dilute water based
lubricants on the heated die surfaces. This spray is produced by atomizing lubricants into small droplets using
spray devices with pressurized air.
Prerequisites for lubricants:
• Reduce the sliding friction between dies and work piece (Load and energy requirement will be reduced).
• Works as a parting agent between die and work piece. (Prevents sticking).
• Works as an insulator.
• Should be Non-Abrasive and Non- Corrosive.
• Shouldn’t create smoke (Pollution free).
• Availability with reasonable cost.

The lubricant is often a fine suspension of fine graphite

particles in water, with surfactants (that lower the surface
tension) and binders added to aid in the spreading and
formation of adherent lubricant films.
Other Types of Lubricants:
Oils (C): Traditional carrier for solid lubricants offering good wetting and flow characteristic, used on their own,
oils become subjected to film breakdown under condition of temperature and pressure.
Molybdenum Disulphide (D): It is capable of performing under extreme load and relatively low temperatures, up
to 400 °C.
Boron Nitride (E): It is relatively expensive material gaining acceptance and new applications.
Wax (F): Traditional paraffin/mineral wax used on light alloys. These along with modern polymers are more often
used as additives to improve performance of lubricants.
Grease (G): It is a traditional product often containing graphite. Used similar to oils, but convenient for application
in low volume and lower temperature application.
Glass (H): Used with superalloys on billet and preforms offering protection from furnace atmosphere and forging
lubrication in the molten state, composition choice allows extension of temperature working range.
14.8 Forging Machines:
Various types of forging machines are available, with a wide range of capacities (tonnage), speeds, and speed–
stroke characteristics. These machine include Mechanical , Screw , Hydraulic and Hammer presses.
14.8 Forging Machines:
Mechanical Presses: These presses are basically of either the crank or the eccentric type (Fig. a). The energy in a
mechanical press is generated by a large flywheel powered by an electric motor. A clutch engages the flywheel to
an eccentric shaft; a connecting rod then translates the rotary motion into a reciprocating linear motion.
In a knuckle-joint mechanical press (Fig. b), because of the linkage design, very high forces can be applied in this
type of press.

The force available in a mechanical press depends on the stroke position, and
becomes extremely high at the end of the stroke; thus, proper setup is essential to
avoid breaking the dies or equipment components.
Mechanical presses have high production rates, are easier to automate, and require
less operator skill than do other types of machines. Press capacities generally range
from 2.7 to 107 MN. Mechanical presses are preferred for forging parts requiring
high precision.
14.8 Forging Machines:
Screw Presses: These presses (Fig. c) derive their energy from a flywheel, hence they are energy limited. The
forging load is transmitted through a large vertical screw, and the ram comes to a stop when the flywheel energy
has been dissipated. If the dies do not close at the end of the cycle, the operation is repeated until the forging is
completed.

Screw presses are used for various open-die and closed-die forging operations. They
are particularly suitable for small production quantities and for thin parts with high
precision, such as turbine blades. Press capacities range from 1.4 to 280 MN.
14.8 Forging Machines:
Hydraulic Presses: A hydraulic press (Fig. d) typically consists of a frame with two or four columns, pistons,
cylinders, rams, and hydraulic pumps driven by electric motors. The ram speed can be varied during the stroke.
These presses operate at constant speeds and are load limited, whereby the press
stops if the load required exceeds its capacity. Large amounts of energy can be
transmitted from the press to the workpiece by a constant load throughout the
stroke, the speed of which can be controlled.
Because forging in a hydraulic press takes longer than in the other types of
forging machines, the workpiece may cool rapidly unless the dies are heated.

Compared with mechanical presses, hydraulic presses are slower and involve
higher initial costs, but they require less maintenance.
14.8 Forging Machines:
Hammers Presses: Hammers derive their energy from the potential energy of the ram, which is converted into
kinetic energy; thus they are energy limited. Unlike hydraulic presses, hammers operate at high speeds, minimizing
the cooling of a hot forging. Low cooling rates allow the forging of complex shapes, particularly those with thin
and deep recesses. To complete the forging, several successive blows are usually made in the same die.

Hammers are available in a variety of designs, and are the most

versatile and the least expensive type of forging equipment.