Traffic Control

And Analysis

At Signalized Intersection
GROUP 8 (3CE7)
TIQUIO, PATRICE ANNE
HAJAS, GABRIEL
REYES, RAYVEN HESTER S
Signal Timing Terminology
● Indication illumination of signal lenses which
informs the driver as to which movements are
permitted or prohibited
● Cycle one complete rotation through all of the
indications provided
● Cycle length time required to complete one
rotation, given in seconds, C
● Yellow time the change interval, warns drivers
that the signal is changing from green to red
● Clearance interval the all red indication
● Green time the go indication for a particular
movement or set of movements
● Red time the stop indication for a particular
movement or set of movements
● Phase a green interval plus the change interval
and clearance intervals that follow it (typically
related to a particular movement or approach)
Modes of Operation
● Pretimed Operation preset cycle lengths and
intervals. 3-dial signal controllers allow for
three different cycles throughout the day.
● Semi-Actuated detectors at minor approaches.
Green for major street unless vehicle detected on
minor street
● Fully Actuated every approach has detectors.
Green time allocated based on vehicle detection.
Each cycle different, limits placed on min/max
green times and min gaps between vehicles to
maintain green indication.
● Computer Controlled System wide control.
Optimal progression patterns determined for
system wide operation. In order to optimize,
however, cycle lengths must be the same or
multiples of a base to achieve optima performance.
Left Turn Timing
● Permitted Left Turns drivers permitted to cross
opposing traffic but must select their own gap
(green ball on signal head)
● Protected Left Turns left turns made without
opposing through vehicular traffic (green arrow
on signal head)
● Protected/Permitted or Permitted/Protected left
turns protected at the beginning of a phase, then
permitted during through movement green time
Dual Ring Configuration
● Allows maximum flexibility to control the duration of the
phase and the sequence of the intervals.
● The best hardware to implement fully driven signals

Movements 14 can occur simultaneously with

● Movements 5-8 (as long as they occur on the same
side of the barrier)
● Double ring capability allows to skip
phases where they are not needed due to low flow
● Allows unused green to be convert to another
assigned to overloaded phases
Saturation Flow Rate
● Advance saturation progress achieved by a constantly

moving vehicle train passing a green indicator

● Saturation flow rate of each vehicle believed to occupy

hours of green time and if the signal is always green,

then it could be s vehicles / hour the intersection

● If the signal is always green, you could simply multiply the number
of lanes by
to estimate the capacity of the approach.
● Units of measure vehicles per hour Green Time per lane,
Lost Time
● Time not effectively serving a movement or traffic

● Total time lost including start and evacuation Idle time

● Start time signal indicator changes from red to green and vehicles do

not immediately move at rate flow rate

● Evacuation time after part of yellow phase all red phase

Start-up Lost Time
● The loss of time must be taken into account when the first

vehicles cross the intersection

● Start loss time (l) actually distance saturation distance multiplied by

the number of vehicles (n) driving at a distance of more than than the
saturation distance (h)
● There is also a loss of time when a movement is stopped (at the
beginning of the compensation interval)
Discharge Headway
● Download the travel time between vehicles in a row crossing the
curb line during a green phase. Measured at the rear wheels of 4,444
vehicles.
● First trip longer than others. Contains
driver reaction time and acceleration time.
● Second shortest distance, reaction and acceleration overlap
times.
● At some point the distance will equalize, typically around
45 Vehicle.
● Once this occurs, the saturation progress can be measured.
Traffic Low Fundamentals For Signalized Intersections

Saturation Flow Rate

- Is the maximum hourly volume that can pass through an intersection, from a
given lane or group lanes.
- Research has found that a typical maximum saturation flow rate of 1900 passenger cars per hour
per lane is possible at signalized intersections, and it is referred to as the base saturation flow rates.
- Lanes that allow left or right turns usually have lower saturation flow rates.
- If a turning movement is permitted rather than protected, its saturation flow rate is reduced.
- Just as in the analysis of uninterrupted flow, a number of roadway and traffic factors can affect the
maximum flow rate through an intersection. These factors are:

● Lane widths
● Grades
● Curbside parking maneuvers
● The level of roadside development
● Bus stops
● Distribution of traffic among multiple approach lanes
● The influence of pedestrians, bicycles, and heavy vehicles
Lost Time
- Is the time that is not effectively serving any movement of traffic.
- It occurs when traffic streams are continuously started and stopped.
- The stopping of a traffic movement also results in lost time.

Total Lost Time

- Is a combination of start-up and clearance lost times.
Start-up Lost Time
- Is the time lost in the starting of the green time interval when a traffic signal phase changes from
red to green.

Clearance Lost Time

- Is the time lost to stopping a line of vehicles at the end of a green phase.

Start-up and clearance lost times are summed to arrive at a total lost time for the phase, given as:
Concept of Saturation headway and Lost Time
Effective Green Time

- Is the time during which a given traffic movement or set of movements may
proceed at saturation flow rate
Effective Red Time
- Is the time during which a traffic movement is not effectively utilizing the
intersection.
Capacity
Because of movements on an intersection approach do not receive a constant green indication,
another measure must be defined that accounts for the hourly volume that can be accommodate
on an intersection approach given that the approach will receive less than 100% green time. This
measure is capacity and is given by:
Analysis of Traffic at Signalized Intersections

Signalized Intersection Analysis with D/D/1 Queuing

The assumption of D/D/1 provides a strong intuitive appeal that helps in

understanding the analytical fundamentals underlying traffic analysis at signalized
intersections. To begin applying D/D/1 queuing to signalized intersections, we
consider the case where the approach capacity exceeds the approach arrivals.
Under these conditions, and the assumption of uniform arrivals throughout the
cycle and uniform departures during green, a D/D/1 queuing system as shown in
figure to the next slide.
Note: We will use the variable v (for arrival rate) and s (for departure/saturation flow rate), rather than using λ and
µ used in Fundamentals of Traffic Flow and Queuing Theory as this variables are commonly used in signalized
intersection analyses.
v = arrival rate, typically in veh/s

s = departure rate, typically in veh/s

t = elapsed time since a reference time

(typically the start of green or red, in seconds)

tc = time from starts of the effective green

until queue clearance in seconds

r = effective red time in seconds

g = effective green time in seconds

C = cycle length in seconds

Note: The per-cycle approach arrivals be vC and the corresponding approach (maximum
departures) per cycle will be sg. In this figure, it is predicated on the assumption that sg
exceeds vC for all cycles (no queues exist at the beginning or end of a cycle.)
Given the properties of D/D/1 queues presented in Fundamentals of Traffic Flow and Queuing
Theory, a number of general equations can be derived by simple inspection of the figure:
Note: Equation 7.22 are valid only when the arrivals are uniform throughout the cycle, the saturation flow rate is
constant during the effective green period, and the approach capacity exceeds approach arrivals
Signal Coordination

Generally, it refers to the level of timing coordination, or

synchronization, between adjacent signals on the roadway.
The effect of signal coordination on traffic arrival patterns is referred
to as progression quality. Quantitatively, progression quality is
expressed as the number of vehicles that arrive at an intersection
approach while the signal indication is green for that approach, relative to
all vehicles that arrive at that intersection approach during the entire
signal cycle. This value is denoted as PVG, for Proportion of Vehicles
arriving on Green.
Fundamental Relationships
The three most significant factors affecting progression quality are signal spacing, vehicle speed,
and cycle length. The relationship between signal spacing and vehicle speed is most easily illustrated by
considering a one-way arterial. Consider two intersections on a street running east-west separated by
some distance (do). With traffic traveling westbound, the time at which the signal phase of the
westernmost signal (downstream signal) turns green after the easternmost (upstream) signal phase turns
green should be equal to the travel time between the two intersections. The time difference between the
start of the green between corresponding phases at adjacent signalized intersections is referred to as the
offset.
 It is worth noting that coordinating signal timing between adjacent intersections for good
progression in only one direction is very straightforward. However, for an arterial with traffic in both
directions, the setting of the offset for ideal progression in one direction may lead to poor progression in
the other direction.

To obtain good progression for both directions of travel, the cycle length must be considered. For
good progression in both directions, the cycle length (for both intersections) needs to be twice the travel
time from Intersection 1 to Intersection 2. That is, Eq. 7.23 is multiplied by 2 (assuming that the travel
speed is the same in both directions).
 Two other factors that can significantly affect progression quality are g/C ratio and
platoon dispersion.
● Effective Green Cycle Length Ratio (g/C)
First, consider an intersection approach that has 100% g/C ratio (constant
green). Next, consider the opposite case where an approach has a g/C ratio
of 0% (constant red). In more realistic vehicle distributions, the PVG will not
equal the g/C ratio, but the g/C ratio still serves as a limiting condition.
v(green) = v * PVG / (g/C)
v(red) = v * (1 - PVG)/ (1 - g/C)
Where:
v(green) = effective green time, in veh/s
v(red) = effective red time, in veh/s
● Platoon Dispersion

When queued vehicles depart an intersection after the start of a green

phase, they are usually closely spaced. These closely spaced groupings
of vehicles are referred to as platoons. One of the goals of signal
coordination is to maintain these platoons of vehicles and allow them to
arrive at successive downstream intersections on the green. However,
as platoons progress along the length of roadway between signals,
individual drivers within these platoons begin to adjust their speeds, and
the platoon begins to disperse. The greater the distance between
signals, the more pronounced this dispersion becomes, eventually
reaching a point at which the flow of traffic along the arterial will become
more random, or even uniform.
Control Delay Calculation for Level of Service Analysis
Control Delays represents the total delay experienced by the driver as a result of the
control, which includes delay due to deceleration time, queue move-up time, stop time, and
acceleration time, as illustrated in Fig. 7.20.

Analytic methods for estimating delay, such as the D/D/1 queuing approach described
previously, are generally not able to capture the delay due to deceleration and acceleration
and thus usually underestimate the actual delay. Furthermore, while the assumption of
uniform arrivals leads to the intuitive and straightforward D/D/1 queuing analysis approach, it
has been found to underestimate delay when the v/c ratio for an approach exceeds 0.5.

This is because as the traffic intensity increases from moderate to a level nearing the
capacity of the intersection, the probability of having cycle failures, where not all queued
vehicles get through during a particular cycle, increases substantially. These cycle failures
are random occurrences for the most part, but must be accounted for in the estimation of
overall delay to achieve reasonably accurate results under higher flow conditions.
Figure 7.20 Illustration of control delay for a single vehicle traveling through a signalized intersection.
 Estimation of signal delay as prescribed in the Highway Capacity Manual [Transportation
Research Board 2010] includes two terms in addition to a term for calculating delay due to uniform
arrivals.
Level-of-Service Determination

Before the implementation of any developed signal phasing and

timing plan, the level of service should be determined to assess whether
the intersection will operate at an acceptable level under this plan. The
service measure (the performance measure by which level of service is
assessed) for signalized intersections is delay. The first step is to
aggregate the delays of all lane groups for an approach, and then repeat
the procedure for each approach of the intersection. This will result in
approach-specific delays and levels of service.
Once all the approach delays have been calculated, they can be aggregated to arrive at the overall
intersection delay.
The delay level-of-service criteria for signalized intersections are specified in the
Highway Capacity Manual [Transportation Research Board 2010] and are given in
Table 7.4. These delay criteria can be used to determine the level of service for a
lane group, an approach, and the intersection.
 END

GROUP 8

PATRICE ANNE TIQUIO

HAJAS, GABRIEL

REYES, RAYVEN HESTER

 Highway Capacity and
Level of Service Analysis

FULLO, MARVILONE F.
1. INTRODUCTION
2. LEVEL OF SERVICE
CONCEPT
3. BASIC FREEWAY
SEGMENTS
4. MULTILANE
HIGHWAYS
 INTRODUCTION
Highway Capacity
The capacity of a facility defined as the maximum hourly flow rate at
which the maximum number of vehicles, passengers, or the like, per unit
time, which can be accommodated under prevailing roadway, traffic and
control conditions with a reasonable expectation of occurrence. For most
cases, to analyze the capacity we used the peak 15 minutes of the peak
hour.

Capacity
Independent of the demand. It speaks about the physical amount of
vehicles and passengers that a road can afford. It does not depend on the
CONDITIONS OF HIGHWAY CAPACITY

1. Roadway Characteristics
This are associated with the geometric characteristics and
design elements of the facility, which include type of facility,
number of lanes, lane width, shoulder width, horizontal and
vertical alignments, lateral clearance, design speed, and
availability of queuing space at intersections. For example, a
curved road has lesser capacity compared to a straight road.
CONDITIONS OF HIGHWAY CAPACITY
2. Traffic conditions
Capacity is expressed in terms of units of some specific thing (car,
people, etc.), so it also does depend on the traffic conditions. The traffic
conditions are associated with the characteristics of the traffic stream on
the segment of the highway. These include the distribution of the
vehicles in the traffic stream or traffic composition such as the mix of
cars, trucks, buses etc. and the directional and lane distribution of the
traffic volume on the highway segment. Furthermore it includes peaking
characteristics, proportions of turning movements at intersections etc.
CONDITIONS OF HIGHWAY CAPACITY

3. Control Conditions
This primarily applies to surface facilities and
includes the types of traffic control devices in
operation, signal phasing, allocation of green time,
cycle length, and the relationship with adjacent
control measures.
CAN I ASK SOMEONE
FOR HELP?
What are the three conditions of
highway capacity?

Roadway
Characteristic
s
LEVEL
OF
SERVI
 LEVEL OF SERVIC
CONCEPTS
A quality measure describing operational conditions within a traffic
stream, generally in terms of such service measures as speed and travel
time, freedom to maneuver, traffic interruptions, and comfort and
convenience (HCM 2010).
Rating scale A-F indicate best to worst operation
Factors Influencing LOS
 Volume
 Speed
 Lane width
 Lateral obstructions
 Grade
 Traffic composition
Measure of Effectiveness of
LOS
 Level of Service
Athe geometric design features of the highway may limit the speed of the car.
Service A: This represents free-flow conditions where traffic flow is virtually zero.
Only
Comfort and convenience levels for road users are very high as vehicles have
almost complete freedom to maneuver.

01 Level of Service
Service B: Represents reasonable free-flow conditions. B
Comfort and convenience levels for road users are still
relatively high as vehicles have only slightly reduced
freedom to maneuver. Minor accidents are accommodated
with ease although local deterioration in traffic flow
conditions.
02
 03 Level of Service
C
Delivers stable flow conditions. Flows are at a level where small increases will
cause a considerable reduction in the performance or ‘service’ of the highway.
There are marked restrictions in the ability to maneuver and care is required
when changing lane. While minor incidents can still be absorbed, major
incidents will result in the formation of queues. The speed chosen by the driver
is substantially affected by that of the other vehicles. Driver comfort and
convenience have decreased perceptibly at this level.

Level of Service 04
Service D: The highway is operating at high-density levels but stable flow
still D
prevails. Small increases in flow levels will result in significant
operational difficulties on the highway. There are severe restrictions on a
driver’s ability to maneuver, with poor levels of comfort and convenience.
 Level of Level of
the highway hasService E flow conditions
Service E: Represents the level at which the capacity of
been reached. Traffic
Service
Service F
F: Describes a state of breakdown
or forced flow with flows exceeding
are best described as unstable with any traffic incident
capacity. The operating conditions are
causing extensive queuing and even breakdown. Levels
of Basic Elements of comfort and convenience are very
highly unstable with constant queuing and
poor and all speeds are low if relatively uniform. traffic moving on a ‘stop-go’ basis.

05
06
 Linkage Between Level Of Service
(LOS), Speed And Flow/Capacity.

INDIRECTLY
PROPORTION
AL
SORRY FOR DISTURBANCE.

Can I talk to someone of my

listeners
Under what level of service
does traffic in EDSA given
below picture?

F
BASIC
FREEW
AY
SEGME
NT
 BASIC FREEWAY
SEGMENT
Minimum interchange spacing 2 miles
Only passenger cars
Lane widths ≥ 12 feet
Lateral obstructions ≥ 6 ft from
roadway edge
Level terrain (grades < 2%)
Drivers typical of weekday (regular)
traffic
 Free-flow speed
Free-flow speed is the term used to
describe the average speed that a
motorist would travel if there were no
congestion or other adverse conditions
(such as bad weather).
Free-flow speed is actually defined as
Where:
FFS = estimated Free Flow Speed in mph.
fLW= adjustment for lane width (if less than 12 ft),
mph.
fLC= adjustment for right side lateral clearance ( if
less than 6 ft), mph.
TRD = total ramp density (ramps/mi)

HCM2010
 Total Ramp Density (TRD)
Total number of on-ramps and off-ramps
within (+/-)3 miles of the mid-point of the
study segment divided by 6 miles
Ramp density is a surrogate measure that
relates to the intensity of land use activity in
the vicinity of study segment
BASIC FREEWAY
METHODOLOGY
 Determining LOS

WHERE:
D= density
Vp= flow rate
S= average passenger car speed
BASIC FREEWAY
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ljuoIP8xy14
UNEXPECTED HAPPEN TO ME,

IS THERE anyONE AVAILABLE

TO HELP ME?
CAN YOU RECITE THE
FORMULA OF BASIC
FREEWAY SEGMENT?
MULTILA
NE
HIGHWA
YS
 MULTILANE
HIGHWAYS
Lane widths ≥ 12 feet
Total lateral clearance ≥ 12 feet
Divided highway
No access points
Only passenger cars in traffic
stream
Where:
FFS = estimated free flow speed in mph.
BFFS = estimated base free flow speed in mph (60 mph for rural
or suburban based on HCM recommendations).
fLW= adjustment for lane width (if less than 12 ft), mph.
fLC= adjustment for total lateral clearance ( if less than 12 ft),
mph.
fM= adjustment for median type, mph.
fA= adjustment for access-point density, mph.
 I am blessed.

Can someone make me laugh and then

I give you a point.
two LANE
HIGHWA
YS
CHARACTERISTICS OF TWO-
LANE HIGHWAYS
12-foot (or greater) lanes
 6-foot (or greater) usable
shoulders
Level terrain
No heavy vehicles
100% passing sight distance
available (no "No Passing"
zones)
CRITERIA OF TWO-LANE
HIGHWAYS
Where:
FFS = free-flow speed for the
facility, mi/h;
Sm = mean speed of the measured
sample (Where total flow> 200 pc/h),
mi/h;
Vf = observed flow rate for the
DIFFERENC
ES OF THE
THREE
TYPES OF
 BASIC
FREEWAY
TWO
SEGMENT
LANE
HIGHWA
Y
MULTILA
NE
passenger cars per hour per lane (pc/h/ln)
FOR THE LAST TIME

CAN SOMEONE SPEAK UP AND

ANSWER MY QUESTION?
WHAT IS THE
FORMULA OF TWO
LANE HIGHWAYS?
123
In determining LOS we have
the following formula:

what Vp stands for?

FLOW RATE
WHAT ARE THE 6
LEVEL OF
SERVICE?
ABCDEF
STATE WHAT
YOU HAVE
LEARNED
ON OUR
 YES!
WE DID IT!
Highway capacity
and
level-of-service
analysis CEP8:
Highway
and Railroad
Engineering
The reporters

CABELLO, LYRA JOY B.

ELEPONGA, YESSA IRISH G.

ESPINA, SEAN NIEL P.

The reporters

JUNTERIAL, JERWIN C.

SALES, KRISTINE JOYCE

TOLENTINO, ARC JANRY N.

1.1 Introduction

The underlying objective of traffic analysis is to quantify a

roadway’s performance with regard to specified traffic volumes. This
performance can be measured in terms of travel as well as other
factors. The comparative performance of various roadway segments
is important because it can be used as a basis to allocate limited
roadway construction and improvement funds. The purpose of this
chapter is to apply the elements of uninterrupted traffic flow theory
covered in Chapter 5 to the practical field analysis of traffic flow and
capacity on freeways, multilane highways, and two-lane highways.
1.1 Introduction

The main challenge of such a process is to adapt the theoretical formulations

to the wide range of conditions that occur in the field. These diverse field conditions
must be taken into account in a traffic analysis methodology, yet the methodology
must remain theoretically consistent. For applied traffic analysis, a consistent and
reasonably precise method of determining capacity must be developed within this
definition. Because it can readily be shown that the capacity of a roadway segment is
a function of factors such as roadway type (freeway, multilane highway, or two-lane
highway), free-flow speed, number of lanes, and widths of lanes and shoulders, the
method of capacity determination clearly must account for a wide variety of physical
and operational roadway characteristics.
1.1 Introduction

To summarize, the objective of applied traffic analysis is to provide a practical

method of quantifying the degree of traffic congestion and to relate this to the
overall traffic-related performance of the roadway. The following sections of this
chapter discuss and demonstrate accepted standards for applied traffic analysis
for the three major types of uninterrupted-flow roadways: freeways, multilane
highways, and two lane highways (one lane in each direction).
1.2 level-of-service concept

The Highway Capacity Manual

(HCM), produced by the
Transportation Research Board
[2010], is a synthesis of the state of the
art in methodologies for quantifying
traffic operational performance and
capacity utilization (congestion level) for
a variety of transportation facilities.
One of the foundations of the HCM
is the concept of level of service (LOS).
1.2 level-of-service concept

The level of service represents a

qualitative ranking of the traffic operational
conditions experienced by users of a
facility under specified roadway, traffic,
and traffic control conditions.
Current practice designates six levels of
service ranging from A to F, with level of
service A representing the best operating
conditions and level of service F the worst.
1.2 level-of-service concept

The performance measure that

is selected for level-of-service (LOS)
analysis for a particular
transportation facility is referred to as
the service measure.
The HCM [Transportation
Research Board 2010] defines the
LOS categories for freeways and
multilane highways as follows:
1.2 level-of-service concept

● Level of service A
LOS A represents free-flow conditions (traffic operating at
free-flow speeds, as defined in Chapter 5). Individual users are
virtually unaffected by the presence of others in the traffic stream.
Freedom to select speeds and to maneuver within the traffic
stream is extremely high.
1.2 level-of-service concept
● Level of service B
LOS B also allows speeds at or near free-flow speeds, but the presence of other
users in the traffic stream begins to be noticeable. Freedom to select speeds is relatively
unaffected, but there is a slight decline in the freedom to maneuver within the traffic
stream relative to LOS A.
1.2 level-of-service concept
● Level of service C
LOS C has speeds at or near free-flow speeds, but the freedom to maneuver is
noticeably restricted (lane changes require careful attention on the part of drivers). The
general level of comfort and convenience declines significantly at this level.
1.2 level-of-service concept
● Level of service D
LOS D represents the conditions where speeds begin to decline slightly with
increasing flow. The freedom to maneuver becomes more restricted, and drivers
experience reductions in physical and psychological comfort.
1.2 level-of-service concept
● Level of service E
LOS E represents operating conditions at or near the roadway’s capacity. Even
minor disruptions to the traffic stream, such as vehicles entering from a ramp or vehicles
changing lanes, can cause delays as other vehicles give way to allow such maneuvers.
1.2 level-of-service concept
● Level of service F
LOS F describes a breakdown in vehicular flow. Queues form quickly behind
points in the roadway where the arrival flow rate temporarily exceeds the
departure rate, as determined by the roadway’s capacity. Such points occur at
incidents and on- and off-ramps, where incoming traffic results in capacity being
exceeded.
1.3 level-of-service determination

There are several steps in a basic level-of-service

determination for an uninterrupted flow facility. The
remainder of this section describes the general details of
each step, as applicable to uninterrupted-flow facility
analyses.
Facility-specific details of these steps are described in
the sections that follow.
1.3 level-of-service determination

Base Conditions and

Capacity
The determination of a roadway’s level
of service begins with the specification of base
roadway conditions.
For uninterrupted-flow roadways, base
conditions can be categorized as those
relating to roadway conditions, such as lane
widths, lateral clearances, access frequency,
and terrain; and traffic stream conditions such
as the effects of heavy vehicles (large trucks,
buses, and RVs) and driver population
characteristics.
1.3 level-of-service determination

● Base conditions are

defined as those
conditions that represent
unrestrictive geometric
and traffic conditions.
Additionally, base
conditions are assumed
to consist of favorable
environmental conditions
(such as dry roadways).
1.3 level-of-service determination

Determining Free-Flow Speed

Free-flow speed (FFS) is a term that was introduced in

Chapter 5 as the speed of traffic as the traffic density
approaches zero.
FFS is the mean speed of traffic as measured when flow
rates are low to moderate (specific values are given under the
individual sections for each roadway type).
1.3 level-of-service determination

Determining Analysis Flow Rate

One of the fundamental inputs to a traffic analysis is the actual traffic volume on the roadway, in vehicles
per hour, which is given the symbol V.
Generally, the highest volume in a 24-hour period (the peak-hour volume) is used for V in traffic analysis
computations.
The hourly volume is divided by adjustment factors to obtain an equivalent flow rate in terms of
passenger cars per hour (pc/h). Additionally, the flow rate is expressed on a per-lane basis (pc/h/ln) by dividing
by the number of lanes in the analysis segment.
1.4 basic freeway segments

Basic Freeway Segment

A basic freeway segment is defined as a
section of a divided roadway having two or more
lanes in each direction, full access control, and
traffic that is unaffected by merging or diverging
movements near ramps. It is important to note
that capacity analysis for divided roadways
focuses on the traffic flow in one direction only.
1.4 basic freeway segments

Basic Conditions and Capacity

The base conditions for a basic freeway segment are defined as [Transportation Research Board 2010]

• 12-ft minimum lane widths

• 6-ft minimum right-shoulder clearance between the edge of the travel lane and objects (utility poles,
retaining walls, etc.) that influence driver behavior
• 2-ft minimum median lateral clearance
• Only passenger cars in the traffic stream
• Five or more lanes in each travel direction (urban areas only)
• 2-mi or greater interchange spacing
• Level terrain (no grades greater than 2%)
• A driver population of mostly familiar roadway users
1.4 basic freeway segments

Service Measure
The service measure for basic freeway segments is density.
Density, as discussed in Chapter 5, is typically measured in terms of passenger
cars per mile per lane (pc/mi/ln) and therefore provides a good measure of the
relative mobility of individual vehicles in the traffic stream.
A low traffic stream density gives individual vehicles the ability to change lanes
and speeds with relative ease, while a high density makes it very difficult for
individual vehicles to maneuver within the traffic stream. Thus, traffic density is
the primary determinant of freeway level of service.
1.4 basic freeway segments

Recall Eq. 5.14 from Chapter 5:

q = uk

where q = flow in veh/h,

u = speed in mi/h, and
k = density in veh/mi.

Density is therefore calculated as flow divided by speed.

1.4 basic freeway segments

Calculate Density and Determine LOS

The final step before level of service can be determined is to calculate the density
of the traffic stream.
1.4 basic freeway segments

Determine Free-Flow Speed

1.4 basic freeway segments

Determine Analysis Flow Rate

1.4 basic freeway segments

Heavy-Vehicle Adjustment

where
fHV = heavy-vehicle adjustment factor,
PT = proportion of trucks and buses in the traffic stream,
PR = proportion of recreational vehicles in the traffic stream, ET = passenger car equivalent for trucks and
buses, from Table 6.5, 6.6, or 6.8, and
ER = passenger car equivalent for recreational vehicles, from Table 6.5 or 6.7.
1.4 basic freeway segments

Peak-Hour

As previously mentioned, vehicle arrivals during

the period of analysis [typically the highest
hourly volume within a 24-h period (peak hour)]
will likely be non-uniform.
The peak-hour factor has been developed for
this purpose, and is defined as the ratio of the
hourly volume to the maximum 15-min flow rate
expanded to an hourly volume, as follows:
1.4 basic freeway segments
1.5 Multilane highways

Multilane Highways
Multilane highways are similar to freeways in most
respects, except for a few key differences:
 • Vehicles may enter or leave the roadway at at-
grade intersections and driveways (multilane
highways do not have full access control).
 • Multilane highways may or may not be divided (by a
barrier or median separating opposing directions of
flow), whereas freeways are always divided.
 • Traffic signals may be present.
 • Design standards (such as design speeds) are
sometimes lower than those for freeways.
 • The visual setting and development along multilane
highways are usually more distracting to drivers than
in the freeway case.
1.5 Multilane highways

Multilane highways usually have four or six lanes (both directions), have posted
speed limits between 40 and 60 mi/h, and can have physical medians, medians
that are two-way left-turn lanes (TWLTLs), or opposing directional volumes that
may not be divided by a median at all.
1.5 Multilane highways

Base Conditions and Capacity

The base conditions for multilane highways are defined as
[Transportation Research Board 2010]
• 12-ft minimum lane widths
• 12-ft minimum total lateral clearance from roadside objects
(right shoulder and median) in the travel direction
• Only passenger cars in the traffic stream
• No direct access points along the roadway
• Divided highway
• Level terrain (no grades greater than 2%)
• Driver population of mostly familiar roadway users • Free-
flow speed of 60 mi/h or more.
1.5 Multilane highways

Service Measure

Due to the large degree of similarity

between multilane highway and freeway
facilities, density is also the service
measure (performance measure used for
determining level of service) for multilane
highways. The density thresholds for
levels of service A–D are the same for
multilane highways and freeways.
1.5 Multilane highways

Determine Free-Flow Speed

1.5 Multilane highways

Lateral Clearance Adjustment

1.5 Multilane highways

Determine Analysis Flow Rate

The analysis flow rate for multilane highways is
determined in the same manner as for freeways,
using Eq. 6.3 and the remainder of the
procedure outlined in Section 6.4.4.
There is one minor difference for multilane
highways—the guidelines for an extended
segment analysis.
An extended segment (general terrain type)
analysis can be used for multilane highway
segments if grades of 3% or less do not extend
for more than 1 mi or any grades greater than
3% do not extend for more than 0.5 mi.
1.5 Multilane highways

Calculate Density and

Determine LOS

The procedure for calculating density

and determining LOS for multilane
highways is essentially the same as
for freeways.
1.6 two lane highways

Two Lane Highways

Two-lane highways are defined as

roadways with one lane available in each
direction.

For level-of-service determination, a key

distinction between two-lane highways
and the freeways and multilane highways
previously discussed is that traffic in both
directions must now be considered. This
is because traffic in an opposing direction
has a strong influence on level of service.
1.6 two lane highways

Base Conditions and Capacity

The base conditions for two-lane highways are defined as

[Transportation Research Board 2010]
• 12-ft minimum lane widths
• 6-ft minimum shoulder widths
• 0% no-passing zones on the highway segment
• Only passenger cars in the traffic stream
• No direct access points along the roadway
• No impediments to through traffic due to traffic control or turning
vehicles
• Level terrain (no grades greater than 2%)
1.6 two lane highways

Service Measures
Three service measures have been identified for two-lane highways:
(1) percent time spent following,
(2) average travel speed, and
(3) (3) percent of free-flow speed.
1.6 two lane highways

Percent time spent following (PTSF)

o the average percentage of travel time that vehicles must travel behind slower
vehicles due to the lack of passing opportunities (because of geometry and/or
opposing traffic)
o PTSF is generally representative of a driver’s freedom to maneuver in the
traffic stream.
1.6 two lane highways

Average travel speed (ATS)

o It is simply the length of the analysis segment divided by the average travel
time of all vehicles traversing the segment during the analysis period.
o ATS is an indicator of the mobility on a two-lane highway.
1.6 two lane highways

Percent free-free flow speed (PFFS)

o It is the average travel speed of the analysis segment divided by the free-flow
speed of the analysis segment.
o PFFS is an indicator of how closely vehicles are able to travel to their desired
speed.
1.6 two lane highways

● The Highway Capacity

THREE Manual [Transportation

CLASSES OF
Research Board 2010]
has defined three
TWO-LANE classes of two-lane
highway:
HIGHWAY
1.6 two lane highways

Class I:
 Two-lane highways on which
motorists expect to travel at high
speeds, as well as avoid extended
following of other vehicles.
 Class I highways include intercity
routes, primary arterials connecting
major traffic generators, daily
commuter routes, and primary links
in state or national highway
networks.
1.6 two lane highways

Class II:

 Two-lane highways on which

motorists do not necessarily expect
to travel at high speeds.
 Shorter routes and routes that pass
through rugged terrain, for which
travel speeds will generally be lower
than for Class I highways, are
typically assigned to Class II.
1.6 two lane highways

Class III:
 Two-lane highways on which
motorists do not expect
frequent passing
opportunities, or to travel at
high speeds.
 Scenic routes, recreational
routes, or routes that pass
through moderately developed
areas (small towns) are
typically assigned to Class III.
1.6 two lane highways

Determine Free-Flow Speed

1.6 two lane highways

Determine Analysis Flow Rate

1.6 two lane highways

Calculating Service Measures

If the highway is Class I, both ATS and PTSF must be calculated. If the highway is Class II, only PTSF needs
to be calculated. If the highway is Class III, only ATS needs to be calculated.
1.6 two lane highways

Percent Time Spent Following

1.6 two lane highways

Percent Free-Flow Speed

1.6 two lane highways
Determining LOS

The first step in the LOS determination is to compare the analysis flow rate, vd, to the
directional capacity of 1700 pc/h. If vd exceeds 1700, the LOS is F, and the analysis ends.
In this case, PTSF is virtually 100%, and speeds are highly variable and difficult to estimate.
If the capacity in the analysis direction is not exceeded, then the combined demand flow rates
(vd + vo) for both directions must be checked against the two-way capacity of 3200 pc/h.
If the two-capacity is exceeded, refer to the Highway Capacity Manual [Transportation
Research Board 2010] for further guidance on this situation.
 END ss

Thank you for listening!

 HIGHW AY CAPACITY AN D LEVEL OF AN ALYS IS

Introduction
One of the most critical needs in traffic engineering
is a clear understanding of how much traffic a given
facility can accommodate and under what operating
conditions. These important issues are addressed in
highway capacity and level-of-service analysis. The
basis for all capacity and level-ofservice analysis is a
set of analytic procedures that relate demand or
existing flow levels, geometric characteristics, and
controls to measures of the resulting quality of
operations.
 HIGHW AY CAPACITY AN D LEVEL OF AN ALYS IS

Highway Capacity
The capacity of a facility defined as the maximum
hourly flow rate at which the maximum number of
vehicles, passengers, per unit of time, which can be
accommodated under prevailing roadway, traffic
and control conditions with a reasonable
expectation of occurrence. For most cases, to
analyze the capacity we used the peak 15 minutes
of the peak hour.
HIGHW AY CAPACITY AN D LEVEL OF AN ALYS IS

Capacity
Maximum number of vehicles which has a
reasonable expectation of passing over a given
section of a lane or a roadway in one direction
during a given time period under prevailing
roadway and traffic conditions. It does not depend
on the total number of vehicles demanding service.
Generally the highway capacity depends on certain
conditions as listed below;
Road way
characteristics Traffic
conditions: Control
conditions:
 CAPACITY

Road way
characteristics
This are associated with the geometric
characteristics and design elements of the facility,
which include type of facility, number of lanes,
lane width, shoulder width, horizontal and
vertical alignments, lateral clearance, design
speed, and availability of queuing space at
intersections. For example, a curved road has
lesser capacity compared to astraight road.
 CAPACITY

Traffic conditions:
Capacity is expressed in terms of units of some
specific thing (car, people, etc.), so it also does
depend on the traffic conditions. The traffic
conditions are associated with the characteristics of
the traffic stream on the segment of the highway.
These include the distribution of the different types
of vehicles in the traffic stream or traffic
composition such as the mix of cars, trucks, buses
etc. and the directional and lane distribution of the
traffic volume on the highway segment.
 CAPACITY

Control conditions:
This primarily applies to surface facilities and
includes the types of traffic control devices in
operation, signal phasing, allocation of green time,
cycle length, and the relationship with adjacent
control measures.
 CAPA
Hourly capacity isC influenced
ITY by the
following factors:
Number of lanes;
Carriageway
width; Shoulder
width;
Gradients and their length;
Truck and bus percentage of total traffic;
Lateral obstructions on both or one side of the
roadway; and
Roadside friction
 HIGHW AY CAPACITY AN D LEVEL OF AN ALYS IS

Level of Service
Level of Service
Factors affecting level of service
Determining the capacity and LOS of a
highway
 LEVEL OF
The level-of-service concept was introduced in the
SERVICE CON
1965 HCM as a convenient way to describe the
CEPT
general quality of operations on a facility with defined
traffic, roadway, and control conditions. Using a letter
scale from A to F, a terminology for operational
quality was created that has become an important
tool in communicating complex issues to decision-
makers and the general public
 LEVEL OF
SERVICE CON
A term level-of-service closely related to capacity
CEPT
and often confused with it is service volume. When
capacity gives a quantitative measure of traffic, level
of service or LOS tries to give a qualitative measure.
Service volume is the maximum number of vehicles,
passengers, or the like, which can be accommodated
by a given facility or system under given conditions
at a given level of service.
 LEVEL OF
SERVICE CON
Level of service (LOS) qualitatively measures
CEPT
both the operating conditions within a traffic
system and how these conditions are perceived
by drivers and passengers. It is related with the
physical characteristics of the highway and the
different operating characteristics that can occur
when the highway carries different traffic
volumes.
 L E V E L O F S E R V I C EC O N C E P
T

For a given road or facility, capacity could be

constant. But actual flow will be different for
different days and different times in a day itself.
The intention of LOS is to relate the traffic
service quality to a given flow rate of traffic.

Highway capacity manual (HCM) divides the

quality of traffic into six levels ranging from
level A to level F.
 LEVEL O F S E R V I C EC O N C E P T
Service A: This represents free-flow conditions where
traffic
flow is virtually zero. Only the geometric design features of
the highway may limit the speed of the car. Comfort and
convenience levels for road users are very high as vehicles
have almost complete freedom to maneuver.
 LEVEL OF S ER V ICE CON CEPT

Service B: Represents reasonable free-flow conditions. Comfort

and convenience levels for road users are still relatively high as
vehicles have only slightly reduced freedom to maneuver. Minor
accidents are accommodated with ease although local
deterioration in traffic flow conditions would be more discernible
than in service A.
 L E V E L O F S E R V I C EC O N C E P
Delivers stableTflow conditions. Flows are at a level where small increases
will cause a considerable reduction in the performance or ‘service’ of the
highway. There are marked restrictions in the ability to maneuver and care is
required when changing lane. While minor incidents can still be absorbed,
major incidents will result in the formation of queues. The speed chosen by
the driver is substantially affected by that of the other vehicles. Driver
comfort and convenience have decreased perceptibly at this level.
 L E V E L O F S E R V I C EC O N C E P
Service D: TheT highway is operating at highdensity levels but stable
flow still prevails. Small increases in flow levels will result in
significant operational difficulties on the highway. There are severe
restrictions on a driver’s ability to maneuver, with poor levels of
comfort and convenience.
 LEVEL OF S ER V ICE CON CEPT
Service E: Represents the level at which the capacity of the
has been reached. Traffic flow highway
conditions are best described as
unstable with any traffic incident causing extensive queuing and even
breakdown. Levels of Basic Elements of comfort and convenience
are very poor and all speeds are low if relatively uniform.
 L E V E L O F S E R V I C EC O N C E P
T
Service F: Describes a state of breakdown or forced flow
with flows exceeding capacity. The operating conditions are
highly unstable with constant queuing and traffic moving on
a ‘stop- go’ basis.
 LEVEL OF S ERVIC CON CEP
E T
Factors affecting level of service

One can derive from a road under different

operating characteristics and traffic volumes. The
factors affecting level of service (LOS) can be
listed as follows:
1.Speed and travel time
2.Traffic interruptions/restrictions
3.Freedom to travel with desired speed
4.Driver comfort and convenience
5.Operating cost.
HIGHW AY CAPACITY AN D LEVEL OF AN ALYS IS

Basic Freeway
Segments
A basic freeway section is a segment where there
are no interruptions to the flow of traffic.
Interruptions to traffic flow occur when vehicles
enter or leave the freeway. Therefore, a basic
freeway section is one where on or off ramps are
not present for at least 1500 feet upstream and
downstream of the section.
 B ASIC FREE
In addition to uninterrupted conditions, the "ideal"
basic W A Ysection is defined
freeway S EasGhaving
M the
E Nfollowing
T S characteristics:
Each lane is 12 feet wide.
There is 6 feet of clearance between the outside and the
inside edges of the freeway and the nearest obstruction
that would distract or influence a motorist.
All vehicles are passenger cars (no trucks, buses, or
recreational vehicles).
Ten or more lanes (in urban areas only).
Interchanges are spaced every 2 miles or
more.
The drivers are regular and familiar users of the freeway
section.
 FREEW AY S EGM EN TS
BA
SI
C

Together, these conditions represent the "highest"

(ideal) type of freeway section, which is one with a
free- flow speed of 70 mph or higher and a capacity
of 2400 passenger cars per hour per lane (pcphpl).
HIGHW AY CAPACITY AN D LEVEL OF AN ALYS IS

Multilane Highways
Highway
Classification
· Two lane highways.
· Multilane highways
 HIGHWAY CHARACT
ERISTIC
Multilane Highways

Divided multilane highway in a rural/suburban Undivided multilane highway in a

environmen environmen
rural/suburban
t t
FREE FLOW S PEED A
ND CAPACITY F
OR MULTILANE
TY PES OF FA CILIT H IF RGE EHF W
L O WA Y C A P A C I T Y
Y
speed(kmph) (pcphpl)

M ULTILAN E
1 2200

0
9 2100
0
8 2000
0
7 1900
0
 LEVEL OF S ERVIC
E
Level of service (LOS) is a qualitative term describing
the operational performance of any transportation
facility. The qualitative performance measure can be
defined using various quantitative terms like:

1. Volume to capacity ratio,

2. Mean passenger car speed,( in km/h)
3. Density, (in p/kmln)
LEVEL OF S ERVIC
E
 D E T E R M I N A T I O N O FL E V E L O F
S ERVICE

The determination of level of service for a multilane

highway involves three steps:

1. Determination of free-flow speed

2. Determination of flow rate
3. Determination of level of service
 FR E FLOW S PEE
E D

Speed-flow relationship Density-flow relationships

on multilane highways on multilane highways

Speed-flow curves with L OS

criteria for multilane
 Flowchart showing step by
step procedure to find density
and L OS
 DETERM IN ATION OF FREE-FLOW S PEE
D
W hen field data are not available, the free-flow speed can be
estimated indirectly as follows:

where,
FFS is the estimated FFS (km/h),
BFFS= base FFS (km/h),
fLW = adjustment for lane width,
fLC= adjustment for lateral clearance
(km/h),
fM= adjustment for median type, (km/h),
fA= adjustment for access points,
 DETERMINATION OF
F R(Source:
Adjustment for lane width E E - HCM,
FLOW
2000) SPEED
Lane Width (m) Reduction in F F S

(km/h)
3.6 0.0
3.5 1.0
3.4 2.1
3.3 3.1
3.2 5.6
3.1 8.1
3.0 10.6
The adjustment for lateral clearance (TLC) is given
as:

where,
TLC = Total lateral clearance
(m), LCL = Lateral clearance
(m), LCR= Lateral clearance (m),
From various studies of the flow characteristics, base conditions
for multilane highways are defined as follows:

1. Lane widths are 3.6 m.

2. Lateral clearance is 1.8 m.
3.A minimum of 3.6 m of total lateral clearance in the direction
of travel. Clearances are measured from the edge of the outer
travelled lanes (shoulders included) and lateral clearance of 1.8
m or greater are considered to be equal to 1.8 m.
4. No direct access points along the highway.
5. A divided highway.
6. Only passenger cars in the traffic stream.
7. A free-flow speed of 90 km/h or more.
Adjustment for lateral clearance(Source: HCM,
2000) Four-Lane Highways Six-Lane Highways

Total Reduction in F F S Total Lateral Reduction in

(km/h) Clearance a (m)
Lateral FFS
Clearance (km/h)
a (m)

3.6 0.0 3.6 0.0

3.0 0.6 3.0 0.6
2.4 1.5 2.4 1.5
1.8 2.1 1.8 2.1
1.2 3.0 1.2 2.7
0.6 5.8 0.6 4.5

0.0 8.7 0.0 6.3

Adjustment to free flow speed for median type(Source: HCM,
2000)
Median Type Reduction in FFS
(km/h)
Undivided highways
Divided highways 2.6
0.0
Adjustment to free flow speed for Access-point density(S ource:
HCM , 2000)
Access Points/Kilometer Reduction in FFS
(km/h)
0
0.0
6
4.0
12
8.0
18
12.0
≥ 24
16.0
 DETERMINATION OF FLO
W RATE
The next step in the determination of the L OS is the computation of the
peak hour factor. The fifteen-minute passenger-car equivalent flow rate
(pc/h/ln), is determined by using following formula:

where,

vp is the 15-min passenger-car equivalent flow rate (pc/h/ln),

V is the hourly volume (veh/h),
PHF is the peak-hour factor,
N is the number of lanes,
fHV is the heavy-vehicle adjustment factor,
fp is the driver population factor.( fp range is 0.85 to 1.0 but in general use
1.0) PHF represents the variation in traffic flow within an hour.
 DETERMINATION
OF FL
OW RATE
where,

ET and ER are the equivalents for trucks and buses and for recreational
vehicles (RVs), respectively,
PT and PR are the proportion of trucks and buses, and RVs, respectively, in
the traffic
fHV is the adjustment factor for heavy vehicles
 PASSENGER-CAR EQU
IVALENT ON EXTEN
DED GENERALHIGH
WAY SEG
FACTOR TypeMof E N T S
Terrain
Level Mountainous
Rolling
ET (Trucks and 1. 2.5 4.5
Buses) ER (RVs) 5 2. 4.
1. 0 0
2
 DETERMINATION OF
L Ehighway
1. The level of service on a multilane V E can
L beOdetermined
F S directly
from Table based on the free-flow speed (FFS) and the service flow rate
ERV
(vp) in pc/h/ln. TheIprocedure
C E as follows:
oDefine a seg ment on the hig hway as appropriate. The following
conditions help to define the segmenting of the highway,
o Change in median treatment
o Change in grade of 2% or more or a constant upgrade over 1220 m
o Change in the number of travel lanes
o The presence of a traffic signal
o A significant change in the density of access points
o Different speed limits
o The presence of bottleneck condition
oIn general, the minimum length of study section should be 760 m, and
the limits should be no closer than 0.4 km from a signalized intersection.
 DETERMINATION OF
2. On the basis of the measuredL or
Eestimated
V E L free-flow
O F speedS on a
highway segment, an appropriate speed-flow curve of the same as the
E Ris drawn.
typical curves VICE
3.. Locate the point on the horizontal axis corresponding to the
appropriate flow rate (vp) in pc/hr/ln and draw a vertical line.
4. Read up the FFS curve identified in step 2 and determine the average
travel speed at the point of intersection.
5.Determine the level of service on the basis of density region in which
this point is located. Density of flow can be computed as

where,
D is the density (pc/km/ln),
vp is the flow rate
(pc/h/ln),
S is the average
passenger-car travel speed
 HIGHW AY CAPACITYAN
D LEVEL OF ANALY
SIS
Two-Lane Highways

Typiical Two-Lane, T w o - Wa y Hiighway iin a Rural Enviironment Two-Lane, T w o - W a y Hiighway iin a Rural Enviironment

Two-Lane, Two -Wa y Hiighway iin a Rural Enviironment Two-Lane, T w o - Wa y Hiighway iin a Rural Enviironment Two-Lane, T w o - Wa y Hiighway iin a Rural Enviironment
 DEFIN ITION

Two-Lane Highways
A two-lane expressway or two-lane freeway is an
expressway or freeway with only one lane in each
direction, and usually no median barrier. It may be
built that way because of constraints, or may be
intended for expansion once traffic volumes rise.
 DEFIN
ITION
Two-lane freeways are usually built as a temporary
solution due to lack of funds, as an environmental
compromise or as a way to overcome problems
constrained from highway reconstruction when there
are four lanes or more.

Many two-lane freeways are built so that when the

road is upgraded to a proper divided freeway, the
existing overpasses and ramps do not need
reconstruction.
 CAPACITY AN D LEVEL OF S ERVIC
E

Two-Lane Highways
The procedures developed for two-lane highway
segments provide the basis to evaluate level of
service and capacity.

Two Levels of Analysis:

(1)Operational;
(2)Planning applications.
 CAPACITY AN D LEVEL OF S ERVIC
E

1. Operational Applications
At an operational level of analysis, level of service is
determined based on:

- existing traffic conditions or

- future traffic conditions and
- specific roadway characteristics
 CAPACITY AN D LEVEL OF S ERVIC
E

2. Planning Applications
- Use estimates and default values in calculations.

- Two classes of two-lane highways are analyzed.

Class I. primary arterials, daily commuter routes,
and links to other arterial highways. travel will be
at relatively high speeds.
Class II. Travel speeds will be lower than
for Class I roads.
CAPACITY
The Highway Capacity Manual (HCM) procedure
is designed to analyze two-lane highway segments
Afor:
ND

L(1)two-way
E V E L traffic,
(2)for a specific direction, or
(3)for a directional segment with a passing lane.
OF
There are two measures used to describe the level
SofEservice
R V I quality
C E of a two-lane highway.nThese are:

(4)(PTSF) percent time following another vehicle, &

(5)(ATS) average travel speed
CAPACITY
1. Percent time-spent-following another vehicle (PTSF)
is the average percentage of time that vehicles are
Atraveling
N D behind slower vehicles.
When “headway” is < 3 seconds, the trailing
L Evehicle
V E Lis considered to be following the lead
vehicle.
PTSF is a measure of the quality of service
O Fprovided by the highway.

2. Average
S E R V Itravel
C E speed (ATS)
is the space mean speed of vehicles in the traffic
stream.
ATS is a measure of the degree of providing
CAPACITY

AN D

LEVEL

OF

S ERVICE
CAPACITY
Two Lane Highways are categorized into two classes
A
forNanalysis:
D

LClass
E V1:E L
Highways on which motorists expect to travel at
relatively higher speeds. Includes two-lane highways
O F
that are major intercity routes, primary arterials
connecting major traffic generators, daily commuter
S ERV
routes, or Iprimary
C E links in state or natinal highway
networks.
CAPACITY
Class 2:
A N D highways on which motorists do not
Two-lane
necessarily expect to travel at high speeds. it serves as
Laccess
E V routes
E L to Class 1 facilities, serve as scenic or
recreational routes that are not primary arterials.
OF

SERVICE
Chapter 5
●FUNDAMENT
ALSOF
TRAFFIC
FLOW AND
 Group
6

Aldrid, Bendana, Einard

Frane Josiah

Catamio, Christine Reyes, Precious Rosales,

Mae Irish Judeth
Chapter 5 Fundamentals of Traffic Flow and Queuing Theory
1. Introduction
2. Traffic Stream Parameters
1. Traffic Flow, Speed, and Density
3. Basic Traffic Stream Models
1. Speed-Density Model
2. Flow-Density Model
3. Speed-Flow Model
4. Models of Traffic Flow
1. Poisson Model
2. Limitations of the Poisson Model
5. Queuing Theory and Traffic Flow
Analysis
1. Dimensions of Queuing Models
2. D/D/1 Queuing
3. M/D/1 Queuing
4. M/M/1 Queuing
5. M/M/N Queuing
6. Traffic Analysis at Highway Bottlenecks
5.1 Introduction
It is important to realize that the primary function of a highway is to
provide mobility. This mobility must be provided with safety in mind while
achieving an acceptable level of performance (such as acceptable vehicle
speeds).
The analysis of vehicle traffic provides the basis for measuring the
operating performance of highways. In undertaking such an analysis, the
various dimensions of traffic, such as number of vehicles per unit time (flow),
vehicle types, vehicle speeds, and the variation in traffic flow over time, must
be addressed because they all influence highway design (the selection of the
number of lanes, pavement types, and geometric design) and highway
operations (selection of traffic control devices, including signs, markings, and
traffic signals), both of which impact the performance of the highway
 5.2 TRAFFIC STREAM PARAMETERS
Traffic streams can be characterized by a number of different operational performance measures. Before
commencing a discussion of the specific measures, it is important to provide definitions for the contexts in which
these measures apply.
Two types of Flow Environment
1. Uninterrupted Flow - Freeways, multilane highways, and two-lane highways often operate under
uninterrupted flow conditions.
2. Interrupted Flow - Traffic streams that operate under the influence of signals and stop signs are classified
as interrupted flow.

uninterrupt
interrupted
ed flow
flow
 5.2.1 Traffic Flow, Speed, and
Traffic flow, speed, and density are variables that
Density form the
underpinnings of traffic analysis. To begin the study of these
variables, the basic definitions of traffic flow, speed, and density
must be presented. Traffic flow is defined as
q= n/ Eq.
where : t 1
q = traffic flow in vehicles per unit time,
n = number of vehicles passing some designated
roadway point during time t, and
t = duration of time interval.
 Time Headway
●The time between the passage of the front
bumpers of successive vehicles, at some
designated highway point, is known as the time
headway. The time headway is related to t, as
defined in

● Eq. 2

●where
●t = duration of time interval,
●hi = time headway of the ith vehicle (the
elapsed time between the arrivals of vehicles i
and i − 1), and
●n = number of measured vehicle time
Substituting Eq. 2 into Eq.
1

Eq.
int q= n/ t Eq.
o
give 2 1
s

o
Eq. r
Eq.
3 4
where:
= average time headway ( hi / n) in unit time per
vehicle.
 Speed
The average traffic speed is defined in two ways. The first is the arithmetic mean
of the vehicle speeds observed at some designated point along the roadway. This
is referred to as the time-mean speed and is expressed as

Eq. 5

where
= time-mean speed in unit distance per unit time,
= spot speed (the speed of the vehicle at the designated point on the highway, as
might be obtained using a radar gun) of the ith vehicle, and
n = number of measured vehicle spot speeds.
The second definition of speed is more useful in the context of traffic analysis and is determined on the
basis of the time necessary for a vehicle to travel some known length of roadway. This measure of average
traffic speed is referred to as the space- mean speed and is expressed as (assuming that the travel
time for all vehicles is measured over the same length of roadway)

Eq.
6
where
= space-mean speed in unit distance per unit time,
= length of roadway used for travel time measurement of vehicles,
and
= average vehicle travel time, defined as
 Eq. Eq.
where 7 6
ti = time necessary for vehicle i to travel a roadway section of length l,
and n = number of measured vehicle travel times.
Substituting Eq. 7 into Eq. 6 yields

or
Eq. 8

Eq. 9

which is the harmonic mean of speed (space-mean speed). Space-mean speed

is the speed variable used in traffic models.
Density
Finally, traffic density is defined
as
k= n/ Eq.
10
l
where
k = traffic density in vehicles per unit distance,
n = number of vehicles occupying some length of roadway
at some specified time, and
l = length of roadway.
The density can also be related to the individual spacing between successive vehicles (measured from
front bumper to front bumper). The roadway length, l, in Eq.10 can be defined as

Eq.
11

where
si = spacing of the ith vehicle (the distance between vehicles i and i −
1, measured from front bumper to front bumper), and
n = number of measured vehicle spacings.
 Substituting Eq. 11 into Eq. 10
gives
int k= n/ l
Eq. o Eq.
11 10
o
r
Eq. 12 Eq. 13

where s = average spacing in unit distance per

I

Time headway and spacing are referred

vehicle.
to as microscopic measures because they
describe characteristics specific to individual pairs of vehicles within the traffic stream.
Measures that describe the traffic stream as a whole, such as flow, average speed, and
density, are referred to as macroscopic measures. As indicated by the preceding
equations, the microscopic measures can be aggregated and related to the macroscopic
measures.
Based on the definitions presented, a simple identity provides the
basic relationship among traffic flow, speed (space-mean), and density
(denoting spacemean speed, as simply u for notational
convenience):
q = uk Eq.
14

where
q = flow, typically in units of veh/h,
u = speed (space-mean speed), typically in units of mi/h,
and
k = density, typically in units of veh/mi.
5.3 BASIC TRAFFIC STREAM
MODELS

While the preceding definitions and relationships provide the

basis for the measurement and calculation of traffic stream
parameters, it is also essential to understand the interaction of
the individual macroscopic measures in order to fully analyze
the operational performance of the traffic stream.
5.3.1 Speed-Density Model
The most intuitive starting point for developing a consistent, generalized traffic
model is to focus on the relationship between speed and density. To begin,
consider a section of highway with only a single vehicle on it. Under these
conditions, the density (veh/mi) will be very low and the driver will be able to
travel freely at a speed close to the design speed of the highway. This speed is
referred to as the freeflow speed because vehicle speed is not inhibited by the
presence of other vehicles. As more and more vehicles begin to use a section of
highway, the traffic density will increase and the average operating speed of
vehicles will decline from the free-flow value as drivers slow to allow for the
maneuvers of other vehicles. Eventually, the highway section will become so
congested (will have such a high density) that the traffic will come to a stop (u =
0), and the density will be determined by the length of the vehicles and the
spaces that drivers leave between them. This high-density condition is referred
to as the jam density.
Speed-Density Model
One possible representation of the process described above is the linear
relationship shown in Fig. 5.1. Mathematically, such a relationship can be
expressed as

Eq. 15

where
u = space-mean speed in
mi/h, uf = free-flow speed in
mi/h,
k = density in veh/mi, and
kj = jam density in
veh/mi.
In fact, the overall speed-density relationship is better represented by three
relationships:
(1)a nonlinear relationship at low densities that has speed slowly declining from the freeflow
value,
(2)a linear relationship over the large medium-density region (speed declining linearly with
density as shown in Eq. 15), and (
3) a nonlinear relationship near the jam density as the speed asymptotically approaches zero
with increasing density.

Figure 5.1 Illustration of a typical linear

speed-density relationship.
5.3.2 Flow-Density Model
Using the assumption of a linear speed-density relationship as shown in
Eq.15, a parabolic flow-density model can be obtained by substituting Eq.
15 into Eq. 14:

Eq. 15
into q= Eq. 14
uk

Eq. 16
 Figure 5.2 Illustration of
the parabolic flow-density
relationship.
Equations for can be derived by differentiating
because at maximum flow Eq.16,

Eq. 17

and because the free-flow

speed is not equal to
zero,
Eq. 18

Substituting Eq.18 into Eq. gives

15

Eq. 18 Eq. 15 Eq. 19

and using Eq.18 and Eq. 19 in Eq.
14

q=
Eq. 19
Eq. 18 uk Eq. 14

give
s

Eq. 20
 5.3.3 Speed-Flow Model
Again returning to the linear speed-density model (Eq. 15), a
corresponding speedflow model can be developed by rearranging
Eq. 15 to

to
Eq. 21
Eq. 15
and by substituting Eq. 21 into Eq.
14

q=
Eq. 21 uk Eq. 14 Eq. 22
Figure 5.3 Illustration of the Figure 5.4 Flow-density, speed-density,
parabolic speed-flow and speed-flow relationships
relationship. (assuming a linear speed-density
5.4 MODELS OF TRAFFIC
FLOW
With the basic relationships among traffic flow, speed, and
density formalized, attention can now be directed toward a
more microscopic view of traffic flow. The most simplistic
approach to vehicle arrival modelling is to assume that all
vehicles are equally or uniformly spaced. Under this
assumption, if the traffic flow is 360 veh/h, the number of
vehicles arriving in any 5-minute time interval is 30 and the
headway between all vehicles is 10 seconds (because h will
equal 3600/q).
5.4.1 Poisson
Model
Models that account for the nonuniformity of flow are derived by assuming that
the pattern of vehicle arrivals (at a specified point) corresponds to some
random process. An example of such a distribution is the Poisson distribution
(the limitations of which will be discussed later), which is expressed as

Eq. 23
Where:
= probability of having n vehicles arrive in time t,
= average vehicle flow or arrival rate in vehicles per unit time,
= duration of the time interval over which vehicles are counted, and
= base of the natural logarithm (e = 2.718).
The assumption of Poisson vehicle arrivals also implies a
distribution of the time intervals between the arrivals of
successive vehicles (time headway). To show this, note that the
average arrival rate is

Eq. 24

where
λ = average vehicle arrival rate in
veh/s, q = flow in veh/h, and 3
600 = number of seconds per hour.
 Substituting Eq. 24 into Eq. gives
23

Eq. 24 Eq. 23 Eq.

25
Note that the probability of having no vehicles arrive in a time interval of length t,
P(0), is equivalent to the probability of a vehicle headway, h, being greater than or
equal to the time interval t. So from Eq. 25,

Eq. 26

This distribution of vehicle headways is known as the negative

exponential distribution and is often simply referred to as the exponential
distribution.
5.4.2 Limitations of the Poisson Model
Empirical observations have shown that the assumption of Poisson-distributed traffic
arrivals is most realistic in lightly congested traffic conditions. As traffic flows become
heavily congested or when traffic signals cause cyclical traffic stream disturbances,
other distributions of traffic flow become more appropriate. The primary limitation of
the Poisson model of vehicle arrivals is the constraint imposed by the Poisson
distribution that the mean of period observations equals the variance.

Figure 5.6 Exponentially distributed

probabilities of headways greater
than or equal to t, with q = 360 veh/h.
5.5 QUEUING THEORY AND TRAFFIC FLOW ANALYSIS

The formation of traffic queues during congested periods is a

source of considerable delay and results in a loss of highway
performance. Under extreme conditions, queuing delay can
account for 90% or more of a motorist’s total trip travel time.
Given this, it is essential in traffic analysis to develop a clear
understanding of the characteristics of queue formation and
dissipation along with mathematical formulations that can
predict queuing-related elements.
5.5.1 Dimensions of Queuing
Models
The purpose of traffic queuing models is to provide
a means to estimate important measures of
highway performance, including vehicle delay and
traffic queue lengths. Such estimates are critical to
roadway design (the required length of left-turn
bays and the number of lanes at intersections) and
traffic operations control, including the timing of
traffic signals at intersections.
Queuing models are derived from underlying assumptions
regarding arrival patterns, departure characteristics, and
queue disciplines. Traffic arrival patterns were explored in
Section 5.4, where, given an average vehicle arrival rate (λ),
two possible distributions of the time between the arrival
of successive vehicles were considered:
1.Equal tim e intervals (derived from the assum ption
of uniform, deterministic arrivals)
2. Exponentially distributed time intervals (derived
from
the assumption of Poisson-distributed arrivals)
Another important aspect of queuing models is the number of
available departure channels. For most traffic applications only one
departure channel will exist, such as a highway lane or group of
lanes passing through an intersection. However, multiple departure
channels are encountered in some traffic applications, such as at
toll booths on turnpikes and at entrances to bridges.
The final necessary assumption relates to the queue discipline. In
this regard, two options have been popularized in the development
of queuing models: first-in, firstout (FIFO), indicating that the first
vehicle to arrive is the first to depart, and last-in, first-out (LIFO),
indicating that the last vehicle to arrive is the first to depart. For
virtually all traffic-oriented queues, the FIFO queuing discipline is
the more appropriate of the two.
Queuing models are often identified by three alphanumeric
values. The first value indicates the arrival rate assumption, the
second value gives the departure rate assumption, and the third
value indicates the number of departure channels. For traffic
arrival and departure assumptions, the uniform, deterministic
distribution is denoted D and the exponential distribution is
denoted M. Thus a D/D/1 queuing model assumes deterministic
arrivals and departures with one departure channel. Similarly,
an M/D/1 queuing model assumes exponentially distributed
arrival times, deterministic departure times, and one departure
channel.
5.5.2 D/D/1 Queuing

The case of deterministic arrivals and departures with one

departure channel (D/D/1 queue) is an excellent starting point
in understanding queuing models because of its simplicity.
5.5.3 M / D / 1 Queuing

The assumption of distribute time

exponentially
betwee the arrivals of d
successive s
(Poisso
n vehicles will, in somecases, n
arrivals) give a
representation of more
traffic flow than the assumption realist
of
uniformly distributed arrival times. Therefore, the ic M/D/1
queue (exponentially distributed arrivals, deterministic
departures, and one departure channel) has some
important applications within the traffic analysis field.
Defining a new term (traffic intensity) for the ratio of
average arrival to departure rates as

Eq. 27

where
ρ = traffic intensity, unitless,
λ = average arrival rate in vehicles per unit time,
and µ = average departure rate in vehicles per
unit time,
and assuming that ρ is less than 1, it can be shown that for an M/D/1 queue the
following queuing performance equations apply:

Eq. 28 Eq. Eq.

29 30
where
= average length of queue in vehicles,
= average waiting time in the queue, in unit time per vehicle,
= average time spent in the system (the summation of average
waiting time in the queue and average departure time), in unit time
per vehicle, and
Other terms are as defined previously.
5.5.4 M / M / 1 Queuing

A queuing model that assumes one departure channel

and exponentially distributed departure times in
addition to exponentially distributed arrival times (an
M/M/1 queue) is applicable in some traffic applications.
Under standard M/M/1 assumptions, it can be shown
that the following queuing performance equations apply
(again assuming that ρ is less than 1):
 Eq. 31 Eq. Eq.
32 33

where
= average length of queue in vehicles,
= average waiting time in the queue, in unit time per
vehicle,
= average time spent in the system , in unit time per
vehicle, and Other terms are as defined previously.
5.5.5 M / M / N Queuing
A more general formulation of the M/M/1 queue is the
M/M/N queue, where N is the total number of departure
channels. M/M/N queuing is a reasonable assumption at
toll booths on turnpikes or at toll bridges, where there is
often more than one departure channel available (more
than one toll booth open).
M/M/N queuing is also frequently encountered in non-
transportation applications such as checkout lines at retail
stores, security checks at airports, and so on.
The followingequations the operational
describe characteristics of that unlike
equations for M/D/1 and M/M/1, which require that thethe traffic
M/M/N
intensity, ρ, be less than 1, the following equations allow ρ to
queuing.
be greater thanNote
1 but apply only when ρ/N (which is called the
utilization factor) is less than 1.

Eq.
Eq.
35
34
 Eq. 36 Eq. 37

where
= probability of having no vehicles in the system,
= probability of having n vehicles in the system,
= probability of waiting in a queue (the probability that the number
of vehicles in the system is greater than the number of departure
channels),
= number of vehicles in the system,
= number of departure channels,
= departure channel number, and
= traffic intensity (λ/µ).
 Eq. Eq. 39 Eq.
38 40

where
= average length of queue (in vehicles),
= average waiting time in the queue, in unit time per vehicle,
= average time spent in the system, in unit time per vehicle,
and Other terms are as defined previously.
5.6 TRAFFIC ANALYSIS AT HIGHWAY BOTTLENECKS

Some of the most severe congestion problems occur at

highway bottlenecks, which are defined as a portion of
highway with a lower capacity (qcap) than the incoming
section of highway. This reduction in capacity can
originate from a number of sources, including a decrease
in the number of highway lanes and reduced shoulder
widths.
Traffic congestion at such bottlenecks results from
recurring traffic flows that exceed the vehicle capacity of
the highway in the bottleneck area. In contrast, incident-
induced bottlenecks occur as a result of vehicle
breakdowns or accidents that effectively reduce highway
capacity by restricting the through movement of traffic.
Bottlenecks
THANK
YOU!!!