15-213
“The course that gives CMU its Zip!”
Floating
Point
Sept 5, 2002
Topics
IEEE Floating Point Standard
Rounding
Floating Point Operations
Mathematical properties
class04.ppt
Floating Point Puzzles
For each of the following C expressions, either:
Argue that it is true for all argument values
Explain why not true
• x == (int)(float) x
• x == (int)(double) x
int x = …;
• f == (float)(double) f
float f = …;
• d == (float) d
double d = …;
• f == -(-f);
• 2/3 == 2/3.0
Assume neither
d nor f is NaN • d < 0.0 ((d*2) < 0.0)
• d > f -f > -d
• d * d >= 0.0
• (d+f)-d == f
–2– 15-213, F’02
IEEE Floating Point
IEEE Standard 754
Established in 1985 as uniform standard for floating point
arithmetic
Before that, many idiosyncratic formats
Supported by all major CPUs
Driven by Numerical Concerns
Nice standards for rounding, overflow, underflow
Hard to make go fast
Numerical analysts predominated over hardware types in
defining standard
–3– 15-213, F’02
Fractional Binary Numbers
2i
2i–1
4
••• 2
1
bi bi–1 ••• b2 b1 b0 . b–1 b–2 b–3 ••• b–j
1/2
1/4 •••
1/8
2–j
Representation
Bits to right of “binary point” represent fractional powers of 2
Represents rational number: i
k
bk 2
k j
–4– 15-213, F’02
Frac. Binary Number Examples
Value Representation
5-3/4 101.112
2-7/8 10.1112
63/64 0.1111112
Observations
Divide by 2 by shifting right
Multiply by 2 by shifting left
Numbers of form 0.111111…2 just below 1.0
1/2 + 1/4 + 1/8 + … + 1/2i + … 1.0
Use notation 1.0 –
–5– 15-213, F’02
Representable Numbers
Limitation
Can only exactly represent numbers of the form x/2k
Other numbers have repeating bit representations
Value Representation
1/3 0.0101010101[01]…2
1/5 0.001100110011[0011]…2
1/10 0.0001100110011[0011]…2
–6– 15-213, F’02
Floating Point Representation
Numerical Form
–1s M 2E
Sign bit s determines whether number is negative or positive
Significand M normally a fractional value in range [1.0,2.0).
Exponent E weights value by power of two
Encoding
s exp frac
MSB is sign bit
exp field encodes E
frac field encodes M
–7– 15-213, F’02
Floating Point Precisions
Encoding
s exp frac
MSB is sign bit
exp field encodes E
frac field encodes M
Sizes
Single precision: 8 exp bits, 23 frac bits
32 bits total
Double precision: 11 exp bits, 52 frac bits
64 bits total
Extended precision: 15 exp bits, 63 frac bits
Only found in Intel-compatible machines
Stored in 80 bits
» 1 bit wasted
–8– 15-213, F’02
“Normalized” Numeric Values
Condition
exp 000…0 and exp 111…1
Exponent coded as biased value
E = Exp – Bias
Exp : unsigned value denoted by exp
Bias : Bias value
» Single precision: 127 (Exp: 1…254, E: -126…127)
» Double precision: 1023 (Exp: 1…2046, E: -1022…1023)
» in general: Bias = 2e-1 - 1, where e is number of exponent bits
Significand coded with implied leading 1
M = 1.xxx…x2
xxx…x: bits of frac
Minimum when 000…0 (M = 1.0)
Maximum when 111…1 (M = 2.0 – )
Get extra leading bit for “free”
–9– 15-213, F’02
Normalized Encoding Example
Value
Float F = 15213.0;
1521310 = 111011011011012 = 1.11011011011012 X 213
Significand
M = 1.11011011011012
frac = 110110110110100000000002
Exponent
E = 13
Bias = 127
Exp = 140 = 100011002
Floating Point Representation (Class 02):
Hex: 4 6 6 D B 4 0 0
Binary: 0100 0110 0110 1101 1011 0100 0000
0000
140: 100 0110 0
– 10 – 15213: 1110 1101 1011 01 15-213, F’02
Denormalized Values
Condition
exp = 000…0
Value
Exponent value E = –Bias + 1
Significand value M = 0.xxx…x2
xxx…x: bits of frac
Cases
exp = 000…0, frac = 000…0
Represents value 0
Note that have distinct values +0 and –0
exp = 000…0, frac 000…0
Numbers very close to 0.0
Lose precision as get smaller
“Gradual underflow”
– 11 – 15-213, F’02
Special Values
Condition
exp = 111…1
Cases
exp = 111…1, frac = 000…0
Represents value(infinity)
Operation that overflows
Both positive and negative
E.g., 1.0/0.0 = 1.0/0.0 = +, 1.0/0.0 =
exp = 111…1, frac 000…0
Not-a-Number (NaN)
Represents case when no numeric value can be determined
E.g., sqrt(–1),
– 12 – 15-213, F’02
Summary of Floating Point
Real Number Encodings
-Normalized -Denorm +Denorm +Normalized +
NaN NaN
0 +0
– 13 – 15-213, F’02
Tiny Floating Point Example
8-bit Floating Point Representation
the sign bit is in the most significant bit.
the next four bits are the exponent, with a bias of 7.
the last three bits are the frac
Same General Form as IEEE Format
normalized, denormalized
representation of 0, NaN, infinity
7 6 3 2 0
s exp frac
– 14 – 15-213, F’02
Values Related to the Exponent
Exp exp E 2E
0 0000 -6 1/64 (denorms)
1 0001 -6 1/64
2 0010 -5 1/32
3 0011 -4 1/16
4 0100 -3 1/8
5 0101 -2 1/4
6 0110 -1 1/2
7 0111 0 1
8 1000 +1 2
9 1001 +2 4
10 1010 +3 8
11 1011 +4 16
12 1100 +5 32
13 1101 +6 64
14 1110 +7 128
15 1111 n/a (inf, NaN)
– 15 – 15-213, F’02
Dynamic Range
s exp frac E Value
0 0000 000 -6 0
0 0000 001 -6 1/8*1/64 = 1/512 closest to zero
Denormalized 0 0000 010 -6 2/8*1/64 = 2/512
numbers …
0 0000 110 -6 6/8*1/64 = 6/512
0 0000 111 -6 7/8*1/64 = 7/512 largest denorm
0 0001 000 -6 8/8*1/64 = 8/512 smallest norm
0 0001 001 -6 9/8*1/64 = 9/512
…
0 0110 110 -1 14/8*1/2 = 14/16
0 0110 111 -1 15/8*1/2 = 15/16 closest to 1 below
Normalized 0 0111 000 0 8/8*1 = 1
numbers 0 0111 001 0 9/8*1 = 9/8 closest to 1 above
0 0111 010 0 10/8*1 = 10/8
…
0 1110 110 7 14/8*128 = 224
0 1110 111 7 15/8*128 = 240 largest norm
0 1111 000 n/a inf
– 16 – 15-213, F’02
Distribution of Values
6-bit IEEE-like format
e = 3 exponent bits
f = 2 fraction bits
Bias is 3
Notice how the distribution gets denser toward zero.
-15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15
Denormalized Normalized Infinity
– 17 – 15-213, F’02
Distribution of Values
(close-up view)
6-bit IEEE-like format
e = 3 exponent bits
f = 2 fraction bits
Bias is 3
-1 -0.5 0 0.5 1
Denormalized Normalized Infinity
– 18 – 15-213, F’02
Interesting Numbers
Description exp frac Numeric Value
Zero 00…00 00…00 0.0
Smallest Pos. Denorm. 00…00 00…01 2– {23,52} X 2– {126,1022}
Single 1.4 X 10–45
Double 4.9 X 10–324
Largest Denormalized 00…00 11…11 (1.0 – ) X 2– {126,1022}
Single 1.18 X 10–38
Double 2.2 X 10–308
Smallest Pos. Normalized 00…01 00…00 1.0 X 2– {126,1022}
Just larger than largest denormalized
One 01…11 00…00 1.0
Largest Normalized 11…10 11…11 (2.0 – ) X 2{127,1023}
Single 3.4 X 1038
Double 1.8 X 10308
– 19 – 15-213, F’02
Special Properties of Encoding
FP Zero Same as Integer Zero
All bits = 0
Can (Almost) Use Unsigned Integer Comparison
Must first compare sign bits
Must consider -0 = 0
NaNs problematic
Will be greater than any other values
What should comparison yield?
Otherwise OK
Denorm vs. normalized
Normalized vs. infinity
– 20 – 15-213, F’02
Floating Point Operations
Conceptual View
First compute exact result
Make it fit into desired precision
Possibly overflow if exponent too large
Possibly round to fit into frac
Rounding Modes (illustrate with $ rounding)
$1.40 $1.60 $1.50 $2.50 –$1.50
Zero $1 $1 $1 $2 –$1
Round down (-) $1 $1 $1 $2 –$2
Round up (+) $2 $2 $2 $3 –$1
Nearest Even (default) $1 $2 $2 $2 –$2
Note:
1. Round down: rounded result is close to but no greater than true result.
2. Round up: rounded result is close to but no less than true result.
– 21 – 15-213, F’02
Closer Look at Round-To-Even
Default Rounding Mode
Hard to get any other kind without dropping into assembly
All others are statistically biased
Sum of set of positive numbers will consistently be over- or under-
estimated
Applying to Other Decimal Places / Bit Positions
When exactly halfway between two possible values
Round so that least significant digit is even
E.g., round to nearest hundredth
1.2349999 1.23 (Less than half way)
1.2350001 1.24 (Greater than half way)
1.2350000 1.24 (Half way—round up)
1.2450000 1.24 (Half way—round down)
– 22 – 15-213, F’02
Rounding Binary Numbers
Binary Fractional Numbers
“Even” when least significant bit is 0
Half way when bits to right of rounding position = 100…2
Examples
Round to nearest 1/4 (2 bits right of binary point)
Value Binary Rounded Action Rounded Value
2 3/32 10.000112 10.002 (<1/2—down) 2
2 3/16 10.001102 10.012 (>1/2—up) 2 1/4
2 7/8 10.111002 11.002 (1/2—up) 3
2 5/8 10.101002 10.102 (1/2—down) 2 1/2
– 23 – 15-213, F’02
FP Multiplication
Operands
(–1)s1 M1 2E1 * (–1)s2 M2 2E2
Exact Result
(–1)s M 2E
Sign s: s1 ^ s2
Significand M: M1 * M2
Exponent E: E1 + E2
Fixing
If M ≥ 2, shift M right, increment E
If E out of range, overflow
Round M to fit frac precision
Implementation
Biggest chore is multiplying significands
– 24 – 15-213, F’02
FP Addition
Operands
(–1)s1 M1 2E1 E1–E2
(–1)s2 M2 2E2 (–1)s1 M1
Assume E1 > E2
+ (–1)s2 M2
Exact Result
(–1)s M 2E
(–1)s M
Sign s, significand M:
Result of signed align & add
Exponent E: E1
Fixing
If M ≥ 2, shift M right, increment E
if M < 1, shift M left k positions, decrement E by k
Overflow if E out of range
Round M to fit frac precision
– 25 – 15-213, F’02
Mathematical Properties of FP Add
Compare to those of Abelian Group
Closed under addition? YES
But may generate infinity or NaN
Commutative? YES
Associative? NO
Overflow and inexactness of rounding
0 is additive identity? YES
Every element has additive inverse ALMOST
Except for infinities & NaNs
Monotonicity
a ≥ b a+c ≥ b+c? ALMOST
Except for infinities & NaNs
– 26 – 15-213, F’02
Math. Properties of FP Mult
Compare to Commutative Ring
Closed under multiplication? YES
But may generate infinity or NaN
Multiplication Commutative? YES
Multiplication is Associative? NO
Possibility of overflow, inexactness of rounding
1 is multiplicative identity? YES
Multiplication distributes over addition? NO
Possibility of overflow, inexactness of rounding
Monotonicity
a ≥ b & c ≥ 0 a *c ≥ b *c? ALMOST
Except for infinities & NaNs
– 27 – 15-213, F’02
Floating Point in C
C Guarantees Two Levels
float single precision
double double precision
Conversions
Casting between int, float, and double changes numeric
values
Double or float to int
Truncates fractional part
Like rounding toward zero
Not defined when out of range
» Generally saturates to TMin or TMax
int to double
Exact conversion, as long as int has ≤ 53 bit word size
int to float
Will round according to rounding mode
– 28 – 15-213, F’02
Answers to Floating Point Puzzles
int x = …; Assume neither
float f = …; d nor f is NAN
double d = …;
• x == (int)(float) x No: 24 bit significand
• x == (int)(double) x Yes: 53 bit significand
• f == (float)(double) f Yes: increases precision
• d == (float) d No: loses precision
• f == -(-f); Yes: Just change sign bit
• 2/3 == 2/3.0 No: 2/3 == 0
• d < 0.0 ((d*2) < 0.0) Yes!
• d > f -f > -d Yes!
• d * d >= 0.0 Yes!
• (d+f)-d == f No: Not associative
– 29 – 15-213, F’02
Ariane 5
Exploded 37 seconds
after liftoff
Cargo worth $500 million
Why
Computed horizontal
velocity as floating point
number
Converted to 16-bit
integer
Worked OK for Ariane 4
Overflowed for Ariane 5
Used same software
– 30 – 15-213, F’02
Summary
IEEE Floating Point Has Clear Mathematical Properties
Represents numbers of form M X 2E
Can reason about operations independent of implementation
As if computed with perfect precision and then rounded
Not the same as real arithmetic
Violates associativity/distributivity
Makes life difficult for compilers & serious numerical
applications programmers
– 31 – 15-213, F’02
