MODULE-6

MATERIALS AND HARDWARE

BY: HITEN KADU

Module 6 Category Multiple Time
choice allowed
Questions (Minutes)
Materials B1 72 90
and
Hardware B2 60 75
Objective CAR 66 Level
Reference
B1

6.1: Aircraft Materials — Ferrous 6.1 2

A)
Characteristics, properties and identification of
common alloy steels used in
aircraft;
Heat treatment and application of alloy steels

B) 1
Testing of ferrous materials for hardness, tensile
strength, fatigue strength and
impact resistance.
6.1: Aircraft Materials — Ferrous

a) Characteristics, properties and identification of

common alloy steels used in aircraft

In aircraft maintenance and repair, even a slight

deviation from design specification, or the substitution of
inferior materials, may result in the loss of both lives and
Equipment.

Properties of Metals of primary concern in aircraft

maintenance and they are as follows:
Hardness
Hardness refers to the ability of a material to resist
abrasion, penetration, cutting action, or permanent
distortion.

Brittleness
It is the tendency of metal to fracture without
change of shape under shock load.

Hard materials are more brittle than the soft

materials.

Cast iron, cast aluminium , and very hard steel are

examples of brittle metals.
Malleability

It is the property of material which allows it to be

hammered rolled or pressed into various shapes
without cracking or leaving some other detrimental
effect.

This property is necessary in sheet metal that is

worked into curved shapes, such as cowlings, fairings,
or wingtips.

Copper is an example of a malleable metal.

Ductility

Ductility is the property of a metal which permits it to be

permanently drawn, bent, or twisted into various shapes without
breaking.

This property is essential for metals used in making wire and

tubing.

Ductility is similar to malleability.

Ductile metals are greatly preferred for aircraft use because of

their ease of forming and resistance to failure under shock loads.

For this reason, aluminium alloys are used for cowl rings, fuselage
and wing skin, and formed or extruded parts, such as ribs, spars,
and bulkheads.
Elasticity

Elasticity is that property that enables a metal to return to its

original size and shape when the force which causes the change
of shape is removed.

Each metal has a point known as the elastic limit, beyond which
it cannot be loaded without causing permanent distortion.
 Plasticity
It is the property of material to remain deformed after
the force is removed.

Density
Density is the mass of a unit volume of a material.

Density is an important consideration when choosing a material to be

used in the design of a part in order to maintain the proper weight and
balance of the aircraft.
Fusibility

Fusibility is the ability of a metal to become liquid by the

application of heat. Metals are fused in welding. Steels fuse around
2,600 °F and aluminium alloys at approximately 1,100 °F.

Conductivity

Conductivity is the property which enables a metal to carry heat or

electricity.

If a metal is able to transmit heat it is said to be thermally conductive.

If a metal is able to transmit electricity it is said to be electrically

conductive.

Thermal Expansion

Thermal expansion refers to contraction and expansion that are

reactions produced in metals as the result of heating or cooling.
Heat applied to a metal will cause it to expand or become larger.
Strength

Strength is the ability of a material to resist deformation.

Strength is also the ability of a material to resist stress without breaking.

The type of load or stress on the material affects the strength it

Exhibits
.
Tensile Strength
It is the ability of material to withstand tensile load (pulling force)
is called tensile strength.
Compressive Strength
It is the ability of material to withstand compressive load
is called
compressive strength.

Shear strength
It is the ability of metal to resist opposing forces that can cause the
internal structure of the metal to slide against itself.
Bending Strength

It is the ability of material to resist bending stress (combination of

tension and compression)

A
Toughness

It is the ability of material to resist tearing or breaking

when it is bent or stretched. It is the opposite of
brittleness.
Toughness is a desirable property in aircraft metals.
Ferrous Metals

Many different metals are required in the repair of

aircraft. This is a result of the varying needs with respect
to strength, weight, durability, and resistance to
deterioration of specific structures or parts.

In addition, the particular shape or form of the material

plays an important role.

Among the common materials used are the ferrous metals.

The term “ferrous” applies to the group of metals having

iron as their principal constituent.
Plain Carbon Steels

If carbon is added to iron, in varying percentages, the

product is vastly superior than iron alone and is classified
as Plain carbon steel.

Plain Carbon steel forms the base of those alloy steels

produced by combining carbon steel with other elements
known to improve the properties of steel.

A base metal (such as iron) to which small quantities of

other metals have been added is called an alloy.
In fact the classification of iron and steel is based on the
percentage of carbon present. The generally accepted
classification
is as follows,

Wrought Iron --------------------- Trace to 0.08%

Low Carbon Steel ---------------- 0.10% to 0.30%
Medium Carbon Steel ----------- 0.30% to 0.70%
High Carbon Steel ---------------- 0.70% to 2.2%
Cast Iron ---------------------------- 2.2% to 4.5%
Wrought Iron

Wrought iron is an iron alloy with very low carbon (0.04 to 0.08%)
content in contrast to cast iron (2.1% to 4%). An advantage of its
low carbon content is its excellent weldability.

Wrought iron is tough, malleable, ductile and easily welded.

It is used to make pipes, rivets, bolts, chains, and anchors, and is

also used for ornamental ironwork but due to its high production cost and
comparatively low strength; wrought iron is now only used
for specialist applications.

Low carbon steel

Steel containing carbon in percentages ranging from 0.10 to 0.30

percent is classed as low carbon steel. It is also known as mild
carbon steel.
Used for making safety wire, certain nuts, cable bushings, or threaded rod
ends.
This steel in sheet form is used for secondary structural parts and
clamps, and in tubular form for moderately stressed structural
parts.
Medium carbon steel

Steel containing carbon in percentages ranging from 0.30 to 0.70 percent is

classed as medium carbon steel. This steel is especially adaptable for
machining or forging, and where surface hardness is desirable.

High Carbon Steel

Steel containing carbon in percentages ranging from 0.70 to 2.2 percent is

classed as high carbon steel. In the fully heat-treated condition it is very
hard, will withstand high shear and wear, and will have little deformation. It
has limited use in aircraft.
Cast Iron

Cast iron, an alloy of iron that contains 2.2 to 4.5 percent carbon,
along with varying amounts of silicon and manganese and traces of
impurities such as sulfur and phosphorus.

Alloy Steel:

The addition of metallic alloying elements to plain carbon steel

results in the formation of new alloy steel with completely
different properties. The carbon content of the steel is of primary
importance but the varying properties can be obtained by adding
the different metals. The metals commonly used in steel as
alloying elements are nickel, chromium, molybdenum, vanadium,
and tungsten. Small amount of titanium is also used particularly in
the corrosion resisting steel.
Spark Test
Spark testing is a common means of identifying various ferrous
metals. In this test the piece of iron or steel is held against a
revolving grinding stone and the metal is identified by the
sparks thrown off.

The spark streams vary from a few tiny shafts to a shower of

sparks several feet in length.

Wrought iron produces long shafts that are straw colour as

they leave the stone and white at the end.

Cast iron sparks are red as they leave the stone and turn to a
straw colour.

Low carbon steels give off long, straight shafts having a few
white sprigs.

Nickel steel causes the spark stream to contain small white

blocks of light within the main burst.
A(A)High-carbon steel (B) Manganese steel (C)
Tungsten steel (D) Molybdenum steel
Electrochemical Test

Prepare a wiring assembly as shown in Figure, and prepare the two

reagents (ammonium fluoride and dimethylglyoxime solutions) placing
them in separate dedicated dropper solution bottles. Before testing, you
must thoroughly clean the metal in order for the electrolytic deposit to
take place. You may use non-metallic hand scrubbing pads to remove
deposits and corrosion products (thermal oxide).Connect the alligator clip
of the wiring assembly to the bare metal being tested. Place one drop of a
0.05 percent reagent grade ammonium fluoride solution in deionized water
on the center of a 1 inch × 1 inch sheet of filter paper. Lay the moistened
filter paper over the bare metal alloy being tested. Firmly press the end of
the aluminum rod over the center of the moist paper. Maintain
connection for 10 seconds while rocking the aluminum rod on the filter
paper. Ensure that the light emitting diode (LED) remains lit (indicating
good electrical contact and current flow) during this Period.
Disconnect the wiring assembly and set it aside. Remove the filter paper and
examine it to determine that a light spot appears where the connection was
made. Deposit one drop of 1.0 percent solution of reagent grade
dimethylglyoxime in ethyl alcohol on the filter paper (same side that was in
contact with the test metal). A bright, distinctly pink spot will appear within
seconds on the filter paper if the metal being tested is Inconel (nickel-
chromium-iron alloy). A brown spot will appear if the test metal is stainless
steel. Some stainless steel alloys may leave a very light pink color. However, the
shade and depth of color will be far less than would appear for Inconel. For flat
surfaces, the test spot will be circular while for curved surfaces, such as the
outside of a tube or pipe, the test spot may appear as a streak.
Colour Metal

Brown spot Stainless steel

Light pink Stainless steel

Bright pink Inconel

Identification of steel

A numerical index, sponsored by the Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) and

the American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI), is used to identify the chemical
compositions of the structural steels. In this system, a four-numeral series is
used to designate the plain carbon and alloy steels; five numerals are used to
designate certain types of alloy steels.

In the SAE numbering system,

 The first digit indicates the type to which the steel belongs.
“1”-indicates a carbon steel
“2”-indicates a nickel steel
“3”-indicates nickel-chromium steels

 The second digit indicates the percentage of the main alloy in

the steel (but not always).

 The last 2 or 3 digits show the average carbon content in points

or hundredths of 1%.

Thus the “2340” indicates a nickel steel of approximately 3% nickel

(3.25 to 3.75) and 0.40% carbon (0.38 to 0.43).
Small quantities of certain elements are present in alloy steels that are not
specified as required. These elements are considered as incidental and may be
present to the maximum amounts as follows:
copper, 0.35 percent; nickel, 0.25 percent; chromium, 0.20 percent; molybdenum,
0.06 percent.
Heat treatment and application of alloy steels;

Heat Treatment of Ferrous Metals

Heat Treatment of Steel:

• Heat treatment of the steel is based on the fact that the metal has a crystalline
structure which assumes different forms at various temperatures.
• The change in the structure as the temperature decreases is normally slow and
it has been found that by rapid cooling, such as dropping the metal in a cold
liquid, the normal structure at high temperature can be retained at atmospheric
temperatures.
•This new structure has totally different physical properties from the normal
atmospheric temperature structure.
•The practical terms which describes the heat treatment are, Annealing,
Normalizing, Hardening and Tempering or Drawing.
• In addition to this there are some special treatment given to the metals are
Carburizing, Cyaniding and Nitriding.
•To develop the desired properties all
aircraft steel are subjected to one or more of these above operations.
HEAT TREATMENT IS DONE FOR :

Heat treatment is a process in which a material is heated to certain temp. to alter

its microstructure to obtain desirable physical and mechanical properties such as
hardness ductility etc.

At ordinary temperatures, the carbon in steel exists in the form of particles of iron
carbide scattered throughout an iron matrix known as “ferrite.”

At elevated temperatures, the carbon is dissolved in the iron matrix in the form of
a solid solution called “austenite,”

The temperatures at which this transformation takes place are called the critical
points and vary with the composition of the steel.

HEAT TREATMENT 2) SURFACE-

1)BULK- a) thermal and

b) thermochemical
a) Annealing
b) normalizing
c) hardening and tempering2
Critical Range

Materials are said to be allotropic when they possess the property that permits them
to exist in various form without a change in chemical composition. Carbon, which
exists as diamond, graphite, and charcoal, is a common allotropic substance.

Pure iron is also allotropic, existing in three states: namely, alpha beta, and gamma
iron.

In this case each of these states is stable only between very define temperature
limits, alpha iron up to 1400°F, beta iron from 1400°F. To 1652° F., and gamma iron
above the latter temperature.

When molten iron solidifies and is permitted to cool at a uniform rate, it is found that
at 1652°F. The cooling stops momentarily. At this point a changes in the structure of
the iron has taken place, in which gamma iron has been transformed into beta iron.
This rearrangement of the structure has resulted in the evolution of heat, which
accounts for the retardation of the cooling. This point is designated by the symbol Ar3
and is called the upper critical point. As the cooling continues, it is found that a
second retardation occurs at 1400°F. Obviously this is caused by the transformation of
beta into alpha iron with the resultant evolution of heat. This point is indicated by
Ar2, the second critical point.
Ferrite is the pure alpha iron (pure form of iron) in carbon steel. In alloy steel
containing nickel, molybdenum or vanadium, these alloying elements are in the
solid solutions in the ferrite (A solid solution is a solid-state solution of one or
more solutes in a solvent.

Ferrite is very ductile and has the tensile strength of about 40000 psi.

Ferrite does not have any hardening properties.

ductile and magnetic

Cementite is an iron carbide (Fe3C). { ferrite + carbon}

It is very hard and brittle and produces a hardening quality to steel of
which it is a part.

Austenite, the name given to the steel when it is heated above the critical
range consist of a solid solution of cementite in gamma iron.
place where all thee internal changes in metal are over

PERLITE : mixture of ferrite (70 to 80% ) and cementite(12 to 13% )

Theory of Heat Treatment:

When molten steel solidifies austenite is formed. As further cooling takes place the
critical range is reached and the austenite goes through the transition until at the
lower critical point, the pearlite either with the excess ferrite or cementite,
depending upon the carbon content of the steel is formed. The transition from
austenite to pearlite through the critical range is normally a slow operation.
This transition can be arrested if this operation is speeded up by such a means as
dropping austenitic steel just above the critical range in cold water or oil. This
operation is so severe that an extremely hard and brittle material is obtained. By
reheating the metal below the critical range, brittleness can be reduced thus
creating a useful condition of moderate hardness and strength.

Martensite is an intermediate form of cementite in alpha iron obtained when the

transition from austenite to pearlite is arrested.
Martensite is the hardest structure obtained in the steel.

Troostite is another intermediate form similar to Martensite, which is often present

in the harden steel. Troostite is also present in drawn or tempered steel whereas
Martensite is not.

Sorbite is the third intermediate form between austenite and pearlite. It is the
main constituent of tempered steel and gives the maximum strength and ductility
to steel.
The effects of heating to various temperatures and cooling at
different rates may be summarized as follows.

1. When a piece of steel is heated to the upper critical point, Ac3, it

becomes as fine grained as possible no matter how coarse or distorted the grain
was previously.

2. After it has been heated to Ac3, if the steel allowed to cool slowly it retains
the fine grained structure and is also soft and ductile.

3. After it has been heated to Ac3, if the steel is cooled rapidly as by quenching
in cold water or oil, it retains the fine grained structure and fully hardened.

4. If the steel is heated above Ac3, permitted to cool to Ac3, and then
quenched it will be fully hardened but more coarse grained than if it had only
been heated to Ac3, originally.

5. The higher temperature above Ac3, form which the steel is cooled, either
slowly or rapidly coarser the grain.

6. When the piece of harden steel , which has been previously heated to Ac3,
or just above, soaked and quenched, is again heated to somewhere below Ac1,
it is soften but without change in grain size. The softening is greater as the
temperature increases up to Ac1.
Annealing

It is the process of heating steel above the critical range, holding it at that
temperature until it is uniformly heated and the grain is refined and then cooling
it very slowly. Annealed steel is fine grained, soft, ductile and without internal
stress or strain. It is readily machinable and workable. In the annealed state the
steel has its lowest strength. For this reason it is often given a subsequent heat
treatment so as to increase the strength after all machining and mechanical
work is complete.

Purpose of Annealing:

1. To reduce the internal stresses.

2. To reduce the hardness
3. To improve machinability,
4. To increase the ductility
5. To refine the crystalline structure
6. To prepare steel for subsequent heat treatment.

Process annealing is the method of heating steel below Ac1 in the region
between 1020°F and 1200°F. This treatment is commonly used in sheet and wire
industries to restore the ductility.
Spheroidizing is the form of annealing applied particularly to high carbon steel to
improve their machinability. As indicated by the name a globular cementite
structure is obtained.
The operation of Spheroidizing consists of prolonged heating just slightly below
the critical range followed by slow cooling.

Shop Annealing is the term used to describe the practice of heating the steel with
a welding torch to 900°F to 1000°F and dropping it into pail of ashes or lime to
restrict the cooling rate. This treatment will relive the internal strains. It is never
used in aircraft work unless it is to be followed by regular heat treatment.

Normalizing
Normalizing is the form of annealing which consists of heating the steel above Ac3
and then cooling in still air. Due to the more rapid quenching obtained by air
cooling as compared to furnace cooling, the steel is stronger and harder but less
ductile than the annealed steel.

Purpose of Normalizing:
1. To refine grain structure ,
2. To remove internal stresses,
3. To improve the mechanical properties of the steel
4. To reduce brittleness caused by cold working ,
5. To restore toughness of metal.
Compassion between annealed component and normalized components is as
follows,

Annealed components Normalized components

Annealed steels have lower yield normalized steels have slightly
Point, tensile strength and impact higher yield point and tensile
Strength. strength
Ductility and machinability Ductility and machinability
obtained By annealing is obtained By normalizing is
somewhat higher. somewhat lower.
Slightly less hardness and Slightly more hardness and
toughness toughness.
Grain size distribution is more Grain size distribution is slightly
Uniform. Less uniform.
Hardening
Hardening can be defined as the process of heating the steel above the critical
temperature, holding it at this temperature for considerable time and cooling
suddenly. This sudden cooling is called quenching. And the quenching media
used is water, oil or brine solution.

Purposes:
1. The main purpose of hardening of steel is to increase strength and wear
resistance.
2. To obtain a suitable microstructure which will have desired mechanical
properties.

After hardening the parts become brittle, poor in ductility and toughness, good
in tensile strength and poor in impact strength, relative elongation and
reduction in area.
Tempering or Drawing

Tempering may be defined as the process of reheating the hardened steel to a

temperature below Ac1, holding it at this temperature and slow cooling.
Exact temperature at which tempering should be carried out
depends upon the purpose for which the work piece is to be used.

1. To increase impact toughness of an already hardened steel.

2. To improve yield point of structural steel which is already
hardened.
3. To stabilize the structure of the metal.
4. To reduce internal stresses produced during previous heating.
Practical Heat Treatment:
The first important consideration in the heat treatment of a piece of steel is
to know its chemical composition which in turn determines its critical range.
When the critical range is known the next consideration is the rate of heating,
soaking and cooling to be employed to ensure completion of transition or
retardation of transition as the case may be.

Heating:
The object in heating is to transform pearlite (a mixture of alternate strips of
ferrite and iron carbide in a single grain) to austenite as the steel is heated
through the critical range.

Soaking:
The temperature of the furnace must be held constant during the soaking
period, since it is during this period that rearrangement of the internal
structure of the steel completed.

Quenching:
Quenching is the immersion of heated metal in a liquid, usually either oil or
water, to accelerate the cooling.
Casehardening:
Casehardening produces a hard wear-resistant surface or case over a strong, tough
core.

The steels best suited to casehardening are the low carbon and low alloy steels.
If high carbon steel is casehardened, the hardness penetrates the core and causes
brittleness.

Process

The surface of the metal is changed chemically by introducing a high carbide or

nitride content.

Types

The common forms of casehardening are

1). Carburizing
2). Cyaniding
3). Nitriding .
Carburizing:
Carburizing is a casehardening process in which carbon is added to the surface of low
carbon steel.
A carburized steel has a high carbon surface and a low carbon interior.
A common method of carburizing is called “solid carburizing”.

Solid Carburizing:
The steel parts are packed in a container with charcoal or some other material rich in
carbon.

The container is then sealed with fire clay, placed in a furnace,heated to

approximately 1,700 °F, and soaked at that temp. for several hours.

As the temperature increases, carbon monoxide gas forms inside the container and,
being unable to escape, combines with the gamma iron in the surface of the steel.

The depth to which the carbon penetrates depends on the length of the soaking
period.
For example, when carbon steel is soaked for 8 hours, the carbon penetrates to a
depth of about 0.062 inch.
Liquid Carburizing:

Carburizing in a liquid salt bath is called liquid carburizing.

This method is applicable to small parts when depth of case not more than
0.040 inch is sufficient.

This method has an advantage of forming a case uniform in depth and

carbon content.

Also this method is faster than the solid carburizing as the laborious packing
is eliminated

The steel is placed in a molten salt bath that contains the chemicals
required to produce a case .

A salt that melts several hundred degrees below the carburizing

temperature is used as a liquid heat.

An amorphous carbon is added to furnish the required carbon.

Gas Carburizing:

A material rich in carbon is introduced into the furnace atmosphere.

The carburizing atmosphere is produced by the use of various gases
or by the burning of oil, wood, or other materials.

When the steel parts are heated in this atmosphere, carbon

monoxide combines with the gamma iron.

to produce practically the same results as those described under the

solid carburizing process.
Cyaniding:

Cyaniding is a surface hardening of steel obtained by heating it in

contact with cyanide salt followed by quenching.

Only superficial case hardening is obtained by this method and hence

very rarely used in aircraft work. It has the advantage of speed and
economy and may be used on less important parts

The cyanide bath which is usually sodium or potassium cyanide is

maintained at 15500F-16000F.

The work to be harden is preheated to 7500F and then immersed in

the bath for 10 to 20 min.
It is then withdrawn and quenched in water until cold.

A superficial case of 1/64 inch maximum depth is obtained.

The case is hard but not homogeneous. In cyaniding it is important to

use closed pot since fumes are extremely poisonous.
Nitriding:
Unlike other processes the parts are hardened and tempered before being
nitrided.
Most steels can be nitrided, but special alloys ( nitralloys ) are required for best
results.(eg: those containing Al )

Process:

 The part is placed in a special Nitriding furnace and heated to a temperature

of approximately 1,000 °F. With the part at this temperature, ammonia gas is
circulated within the specially constructed furnace chamber. The high
temperature cracks the ammonia gas into nitrogen and hydrogen.
 The nitrogen reacts with the iron to form nitride. The iron nitride is dispersed
in minute particles at the surface and works inward.
 The depth of penetration depends on the length of the treatment.
 The soaking periods as long as 72 hours are frequently required to produce the
desired thickness of case.

Advantages:

1. No other heat treatment is required after Nitriding.

2. Nitrided steel parts possess very high hardness and very good wear resistance.
3. It also possess higher fatigue life and good corrosion resistance.
Induction hardening:
The heat treatment process, which utilizes electric induction heating followed
quenching for producing a hard wear resistant layer on a tough core of a steel part,
is known as induction hardening.

Advantages:
1. Very fast and clean operation.
2. No scale generation takes place
3. Very small distortion of the parts.

Limitations:
1. Not suitable for irregular shaped parts
2. Poor surface properties
Shot Peening:

Shot Peening is sometimes refer as shot blasting.

Shot peening improves the fatigue and abrasion

resistance of the metal parts.

It is applicable to ferrous and nonferrous metals, but

it is mostly used on steel surfaces.

The shot peening process consists of throwing

hardened steel ball at the surface of the work to be
peened.

The steel balls are thrown against the surface either

by compress air or by centrifugal force as the steel
ball is fired from the rotating wheel.
Effects of Carbon
 higher the carbon content of steel is, the greater will be the ultimate
strength, the hardness, and the heat treatment range.
 At the same time , the ductility, malleability, toughness, impact
resistance and weldability will be reduced with the increase in carbon.
Manganese
 Primary purpose of Mn is to deoxidize and desulphurize the steel to
produce a clean, tough metal.
Effects of Manganese
 It deoxidizes by eliminating ferrous oxide, which is harmful impurity.
 Excess Mn increases hardness and toughness of steel.
 It has a property known as “Penetration Hardness” means in heat
treatment of large sections ,the hardness is not merely on the surface but
penetrates the core as well.
 The presence of manganese will greatly improve the forgings qualities of
the steel by reducing the brittleness at forgings and rolling temperatures.
 Mn more than 1% will increase the brittleness of metal.
 Manganese steel with 13% of Mn. Is exceptionally hard and ductile, but it
is too hard to cut.
Examples
 Tail skid shoes
 Rock crusher jaws
 Rail road curves
Note : it has the interesting property of being nonmagnetic.

Silicon
 Very small amount , not more than 0.3 % of silicon, is present in steel.
 It has got good deoxidizing property.
 It also increases the ductility of metal.
 It produces the sound metal.
 Silco-manganese steel have good impact resistance.
Nickel
It is a white metal almost as bright as silver.
In pure state it is malleable, ductile, weldable.
It does not corrode quickly.
It dissolves easily in steel at any proportion.
3 %to 5% of nickel is available in nickel steel.

Effects of Nickel
 It increases the strength, yield point, and hardness without effecting the
ductility.
 It slows down the critical rate of hardening which, in turns increase the
depth of hardening.
 It reduces the warpage.
 It increases the corrosion resistance of the steel.
 It is one of the principle constituent of stainless steel.
Chromium:
It is hard gray metal with a high melting point.

Effects of chromium:
 It imparts hardness, strength, wear resistance and corrosion resistance to
steel.
 It increases the magnetic property, due to which cr-steel is used for magnets.
 It possesses excellent penetration hardness.
 It is used in conjunction with Ni, Mo & Vanadium. About 1% of cr is present in
these alloys, which are strong, hard, and have fair ductility.
 CRS contains large amounts of chromium.18-8 steel is the best example. In
which chromium is 18% and nickel is of 8%.
 Chromium alloys are also used where great wear resistance is required. The
Cr-Vn alloy is used for ball bearing, & tungsten-chromium alloy for high-speed
cutting tools.
 Molybdenum

 It is a very effective alloying elements.

 It improves the homogeneity of the metal & reduce the grain size.
Effects of Molybdenum

 It increases the elastic limit, the impact value, wear resistance and fatigue
strength.
 It improves the homogeneity of the metal & reduce the grain size.
Vanadium
 Vanadium is the most expensive of the alloying elements.
Effects of Vanadium
 It is deoxidizing agent, and improves the grain structure and fatigue strength.
 It increases the ultimate strength, yield point, toughness.
 It provides resistance to impact , vibration & stress reversal.
Tungsten
 They possess an interesting property known as “red hardness”.
 A term sometimes associated with high speed steel because it has the property of
retaining sufficient hardness for cutting metals even when heated to a temperature
high enough to cause a dull redness. The tungsten content has a significant influence
on this property
 high-speed steel is a tungsten-chromium steel used for tools.
Titanium
 It is often added in small quantities to 18-8 CRS to reduce the embrittlement
at the operating temp. of exhaust stacks and collectors.
Phosphorus
It is an undesirable impurity limited in amount to not more than 0.05%.
Phosphorus is responsible for cold shortness or brittleness when the metal is
cold.
Sulphur
It is an undesirable impurity limited in amount to not more than 0.06%.
The presence of sulphur renders steel brittle at rolling or forging temperatures
this condition of steel is said to “hot short”
Inconel
It is a nickel-chromium-iron alloy classified as non-ferrous because the iron
content is negligible.
It is corrosion and heat resisting metal resembling stainless steel (corrosion
resistant steel, CRES) in appearance. Aircraft exhaust systems use both alloys
interchangeably.
 One method of identification is to use an electrochemical technique to find
out the nickel percentage.
 Inconel has a nickel content greater than 50 percent, and the electro-
chemical test detects nickel.

 The tensile strength of Inconel is 100,000 psi annealed, and 125,000 psi when
hard rolled.
 It is highly resistant to salt water and is able to withstand temperatures as
high as 1,600 °F
 Inconel welds readily and has working qualities quite similar to those of
corrosion resistant steels.
Testing of ferrous materials for hardness, tensile strength, fatigue strength and
impact resistance.

Hardness Testing:

Hardness testing is a method of determining the results of heat treatment as well

as the state of a metal prior to heat treatment.
Practically all hardness testing equipment now uses the resistance to penetration
as a measure of hardness.

There are four methods in general used for determining the hardness of the
material. They are;
1. BRINELL
2. ROCKWELL
3. VICKERS
4. SHORE SCLEROSCOPE
Brinell hardness tester:

The Brinell Hardness tester uses a hardened spherical ball, which is forced
into the surface of the metal. This ball is 10 millimeters (D=0.3937 inch) in
diameter.

A load of 3,000 kilograms (6600 lbs) is used for ferrous metals and
500 kilograms (1102 lbs) for nonferrous metals. The load must be maintained
at least 10 seconds for ferrous metals and at least 30 seconds for nonferrous
metals.

The Brinell test is frequently used to determine the hardness of forgings and
castings that have a grain structure too coarse for Rockwell or Vickers
testing.
By varying the test force and ball size, nearly all metals can be tested.
Brinell tests are frequently done on large parts.
Brinell testing is typically done on iron and steel castings using a 3000Kg test
force and a 10mm diameter carbide ball.
Aluminum and other softer alloys are frequently tested using a 500Kg test
force and a 10 or 5mm carbide ball.
Brinell tests on small parts using a 1mm carbide ball and a test force as low
as 1kg. These low load tests are commonly referred to as baby Brinell tests.
Brinell Hardness Tester
Rockwell tester:
There are two types of Rockwell tests:
Rockwell: the minor load is 10 kgf, the major load is 60, 100, or 150 kgf.
Superficial Rockwell: the minor load is 3 kgf and major loads are 15, 30, or 45
kgf.
In both tests, the indenter may be either a diamond cone or steel ball,
depending upon the characteristics of the material being tested.
The majority of applications are covered by the Rockwell C and B scales for
testing steel, brass, and other metals.

Principal of the Rockwell Test

Select image to enlarge The indenter moves down into position on the part
surface
A minor load is applied and a zero reference position is established.
The resulting Rockwell number represents the difference in depth from the
zero reference position as a result of the application of the major load.
The major load is released leaving the minor load applied
The dial of the machine has two set of figures, one red & one black. The red
figures are used with ball penetrator, & the black figures with the diamond-
cone penetrator.
Advantages
This is a generally used method by manufacturers because of its
1). Direct reading
2). Ease of operations
3). Reliability

Rockwell Hardness Tester

Diamond pyramid (Vickers) Hardness:
 The vickers hardness test is made with diamond penetrator in the form of
square base pyramid having an included angle of 136.
 A normal loading of 30 kg is used for homogeneous material.
 A 5 kg load for soft, thin, or surface hardened material.
Barcol Tester

 The Barcol tester is a portable unit designed for testing al alloys, copper,
brass, or other relatively soft materials.

 It should not be used on aircraft steels. Approximate range of the tester is 25

to 100 Brinell.

 The hardness is indicated on a dial conveniently divided into 100 graduations.

 It is only necessary to exert a light pressure against the instrument to drive

the spring loaded indenter into the material to be tested. The hardness
reading is instantly indicated on the dial.
Barcol tester
Barcol tester kit
Shore Scleroscope hardness

Shore Scleroscope hardness testing consists of dropping a small diamond

pointed hammer from a fixed height and measuring and comparing the height
of the rebound with that from a standard test piece.
It is an excellent means of obtaining comparative hardness of large number
of production parts.
If absolute hardness is desire it is essential that the instrument be set level
and rigidly fixed in a position to prevent movement in any direction.
The rebound is measured directly on a vertical scale in one instrument and in
another it is registered on a recording dial.
The Shore method is widely used for measuring hardness of large machine
components like rolls, gears, dies, etc. These components could not be
placed on the table of one of the other hardness testing machines.
The height of rebound is less with soft materials as they absorb more of the
kinetic energy of the hammer. Hard materials produce a greater height of
rebound.
The harder the material, the higher will be the rebound.
 Testing of ferrous materials for hardness, tensile
strength, fatigue strength and impact resistance.

Physical Test Terms

Stress
Stress is a measure of the internal force an object is experiencing per unit
cross sectional area.
Strain

Strain is the deformation of material caused by an

applied load.
Tensile strength

It is the maximum tensile load per square inch which a

material can withstand.
It is computed by dividing the maximum load obtained in
a tensile test by the original cross sectional area of the
test specimen.
In the tensile test, a test piece of known cross sectional
area is gripped in the jaws of a tensile testing machine.
A tensile force is then applied which is increased by
suitable increments. For each increment of force applied
the amount by which the ‘gage length’ of the test piece
increases, is measured using an extensometer.
The maximum force applied to the test piece before it
fractures is measured.
Elastic limit

The elastic limit is the greatest load per square inch of

original cross sectional area which a material can withstand
without permanent deformation remaining upon complete
release of the load.

Proportional limit

The proportional limit is the load per square inch beyond

which the increases in strain ceases to be directly
proportional to the increases in stress.
Stress /Strain curve of mild steel bar.
Proof Stress
The proof stress is the load per square inch a material can
withstand without resulting in a permanent elongation of
more than 0.0001 inch, per inch of gage length after
complete release of load.

Yield Point
The yield point is the load per square inch at which there
occurs a marked increase in deformation of a material
without an increase in load. Only few materials have a
definite yield point. Steel is one of these material.

Yield Strength
The yield strength is the load per square inch at which a
material exhibits a specified limiting permanent set or a
specified elongation under load. This load is fairly easily
determined and is commonly used.
Elongation (Percentage)
The percentage elongation is the difference in gage length
before being subjected to any stress and after rupture
expressed in percentage of the original gage length.

Orignal gauge length- after rupture gauge length ×100

Orignal gauge length
Reduction of area (Percentage)
The percentage reduction of area is the difference between the original
cross sectional area and the least cross sectional area after rupture
expressed as a percentage of the original cross sectional area. This
information is seldom used other than as an indication of ductility.

Orignal cross sectional area − least cross sectional area after rupture ×100
Orignal cross sectional area
L=5d
Modulus of Elasticity
The modulus of elasticity of a material is the ratio of
stress to strain within the elastic limit.
TESTING AIRCRAFT MATERIALS

TENSION TESTING

Tension test of a material is probably the most valuable

test that can be made to obtain the basic properties of a
material.
Beside the ultimate tensile strength it is also possible to
determine the yield strength, elongation and reduction of
area. The yield strength of a material is a definite
indication of the maximum applied load that the material
can withstand. The elongation and the reduction of area
are the measure of material’s ductility and ease of working.

The testing machine commonly used is called the universal

testing machine
PRECAUTIONS TO BE OBSERVED WHILE TESTING

• During the test the specimen must be held in true axial

alignment by the grips.
• The speed of the testing machine crosshead should not
exceed 1/16th inch per inch of gage length per minute up
to the yield point.
• The speed of the testing machine crosshead should not
exceed 1/2 inch per inch of gage length per minute
beyond yield point up to rupture.
• The extensometer must be calibrated to read 0.0002 inch
or less and it must be attached to the specimen only at
the gage marks and not to the shoulder of the specimen or
any part of the testing machine.
• The test specimen should be subjected to the same
treatment and processes as the material they represent.
• The test specimen must not be bent, hammered or
straightened by any method involving cold working of
the part.
• The test specimen for a bar or forging stock of uniform
cross-section and less than 1.5 inch thick should be
machined concentrically from the stock. When the
stock is over 1.5 inch thick the specimen should be
taken from a point midway between the outer surface
and the centre.
• Tubing is tested by putting solid plugs in each end,
which permits griping without crushing. It is a standard
practice to keep at least 6 inches of hollow tubing
between the near ends of the plug.
Elastic Limit Determination:

In practical testing the elastic limit is consider to have been

reached when a permanent set of 0.00003inch per inch of
gage length has been obtained
An accurate reading extensometer must be used to read the
permanent set.
The method of testing is as follows

A load is applied until the stress is 20% of the expected

elastic limit and the extensometer reading is recorded.
The load is then increased to 75% of the elastic limit after
which it is dropped to below 20% and then brought up to
20% and extensometer reading is recorded. If no
permanent set is obtained the extensometer should read
the same value as when the first 20% of the load was
imposed. Again the load is increased to 75 % of the elastic
limit. After the 75% load the additional increments of the
load should be added and released as before to 20% and
the extensometer reading is recorded for each increment
of load. These increments should not exceed 3% of the
elastic limit as this point is approached. The elastic limit
of the material under test is calculated from the last load
prior to the one that caused a permanent set of over
0.00003 inch per inch of gage length of test specimen
Proof Stress Determination:

The Proof stress of a material is the greatest stress it can

withstand without resulting in a permanent set of over
0.0001 inch per inch of gage length after complete
release of load. For the standard 2 inch gage length this
amounts to a permanent set of 0.0002 inch.
The proof stress can be determined in same manner as
the elastic limit, or the load can be released to zero
after each increment.
 Yield Strength Determination:

The yield strength is the stress at which a material

exhibits a specified limiting permanent set or a specified
elongation under load. The commonly used method for
determining this stress is known as set method.

Set Method:
In this method the loads are applied and the extensometer readings are
taken for a number of loads. The loads usually selected are 20%, 75%, 90%
and several other loads just under and over the expected yield strength.
The curve is then plotted as shown in figure in which the applied loads or
stress are on ‘y’ axis and the extensometer reading or strain on ‘x’ axis.
This curve will be similar to the curve OD of the figure. It will be noted
that the lower part of this curve is a straight line. The line CD is
constructed parallel to the straight portion of the line OD and at a
distance to the right equal to the specified set. The point of intersection D
read on ‘y’ axis gives the applied load for the yield strength. The applied
load / the original cross section area is the yield strength.
 
This method of determination is used when the yield strength is specified
in psi for a given percent of set. For metals 0.2% is usually specified.

The set method is frequently specified for determining the yield strength
of aircraft material
Yield Point Determination:

The yield point of a material is the point at which there is a

marked increase in elongation without increase in load. This
phenomenon is found only in some materials such as
wrought iron, and mild carbon steel.

The yield point of a material can be determined by either

of two methods
Divider Method: In this method a pair of divider is set at the exact
distance between two gage marks. The load is then applied to the
specimen with one arm of the dividers centered in one gage mark and
the other arm held free above the other gage mark. At the instant
visible stretch is noted between this later gage mark and the divider,
the load should be noted. The yield point stress is computed from this
load.
 
Drop of Beam Method: In this method the load is applied uniformly and
the recording beam kept balanced by the operator. At the yield point
load the beam will drop suddenly as the elongation increases rapidly at
this point without increase in load. If the testing machine is equipped
with a self-indicating load measuring device the pointer will halt
momentarily at the yield point load. The yield point stress is computed
from this load.
IMPACT TESTING
 
The impact test (refer to Fig. ) is designed to determine
the toughness of a material and the two most commonly
used methods are those using the ‘Charpy’ and ‘Izod’
impact-testing machines. Both tests use notched-bar test
pieces of standard dimensions, which are struck by a fast-
moving, weighted pendulum. The energy, which is
absorbed by the test piece on impact, will give a measure
of toughness. A brittle material will break easily and will
absorb little energy, so the swing of the pendulum (which
is recorded against a calibrated scale) will not be reduced
significantly. A tough material will, however, absorb
considerably more energy and thus greatly reduce the
recorded pendulum swing.
 FATIGUE TESTING

German engineer (Wohler) did work in this direction and eventually

developed a useful fatigue-testing machine which bears his name and
continues to be used in industry. The machine uses a test piece, which is
rotated in a chuck and a force is applied at the free end, at right angles
to the axis of rotation (refer to Fig.). The rotation thus produces a
reversal of stress for every revolution of the test piece.
One of the most useful end-products, from fatigue testing, is an S-N curve,
which shows, graphically, the relationship between the amount of stress (S),
applied to a material, and the number of stress cycles (N), which can be
tolerated before failure of the material. Using a typical S-N curve, for a steel
material, it can be seen that, if the stress is reduced, the steel will endure a
greater number of stress cycles. The graph also shows that a point is eventually
reached where the curve becomes virtually horizontal, thus indicating that the
material will endure an infinite number of cycles at a particular stress level.
This limiting stress is called the ‘Fatigue Limit’ and, for steels, the fatigue limit
is generally in the region of 40% to 60% of the value of the static, ultimate
tensile strength (U.T.S.)
 
Metalworking Processes

There are three methods of metalworking:

(1) Hot working,
(2) Cold working, and
(3) Extruding.

Hot Working

Almost all steel is hot worked from the ingot into some form
from which it is either hot or cold worked to the finished shape.

When an ingot is stripped from its mold, its surface is solid, but
the interior is still molten.
The ingot is then placed in a soaking pit which retards loss
of heat, and the molten interior gradually solidifies.
After soaking, the temperature is equalized throughout
the ingot, then it is reduced to intermediate size by
rolling, making it more readily handled.
The rolled shape is called a bloom when its section
dimensions are 6 inches × 6 inches or larger and
approximately square.
The section is called a billet when it is approximately
square and less than 6 inches × 6 inches.
Rectangular sections which have a width greater than
twice their thickness are called slabs.
The slab is the intermediate shape from which sheets
are rolled.
Hot Rolling.

Blooms, billets, or slabs are heated above the critical range

and rolled into a variety of shapes of uniform cross-section.

The more common of these rolled shapes are sheet, bar,

channels, angles, I-beams, railroad rails, etc and aircraft work
we are especially interested in sheet, bar, and rod rolled from
steel.

Forging.
Complicated sections which cannot be rolled, or sections of
which only a small quantity are required, are usually forged.
Forging of steel is a mechanical working above the critical range
to shape the metal as desired.
Due to the pressure exerted the grain of the metal is refined
and the metal is made more dense and homogeneous
Forging is done either by pressing or hammering the heated
steel until the desired shape is obtained.

Pressing is used when the parts to be forged are large

and heavy.

Since a pressure is slow acting, its force is uniformly

transmitted to the center of the section, thus affecting the
interior grain structure as well as the exterior to give the best
possible structure throughout.
Hammering can be used only on relatively
small pieces.
Since hammering transmits its force almost
instantly, its effect is limited to a small
depth.
The advantage of hammering is that the
operator has control over both the amount of
pressure applied and the finishing
temperature, and is able to produce small
parts of the highest grade.
This type of forging is usually referred to as
smith forging.
Upsetting

is a forging operation in which a hot piece of

metal is increased in thickness and decreased
in length by hammering on the end.
This is the manner in which heads are put on
bolts.
COLD WORKING

Cold working of steel is done at atmospheric

temperatures;
It can be either cold rolling or cold drawing.
Sheet steel and bars 3 inch in diameter or larger
are rolled;
smaller bars, wire, and tubing are drawn to size.

Cold-worked material increases in strength, elastic

limit, and hardness but loses its ductility.
A good surface finish is obtained by cold working,
and the material can be held to accurate
dimensions.
Extruding.

In this process the molding compound is

softened by heating, and is then forced
through a die with an aperture of the desired
shape.
For reference :

Ingot : It is a piece of relatively pure

material , usually metal ,that is cast
into a shape suitable for further
processing.
THANK YOU