INTRODUCTION

TO LOGIC
 Introduction to Logic
 Etymological definition

Logic is derived from the Greek word logos, which

means “spoken word”, “speech”, or “reason”.

The actual name was introduced by Zeno

(300 BC.), a Greek philosopher through
his use of the term logike, which means
“discourses of thinking”, “treatise on
thought.”
 Introduction to Logic
 Etymological definition

But, it was Aristotle who was known to

be the Founder of Logic, because he
was the first thinker to devise a logical
system. After his death, his treatises on
reasoning were gathered together and
came to be called organon – Greek term
which means a “tool” or an “instrument”
 Introduction to Logic
 Essential definition

Logic is formally defined as a science and an

art of correct thinking.

 SCIENCE

 ART
 Introduction to Logic
 Essential definition

Logic is formally defined as a science and an

art of correct thinking.

 SCIENCE  Logic consists of systematized

and certain knowledge of the
 ART principles which govern correct
thinking.
 Introduction to Logic
 Essential definition

Logic is formally defined as a science and an art

of correct thinking.
 Art is the power to perform certain
actions guided by special
 SCIENCE knowledge and executed with skill.

 Thus, logic as an art, helps us to

 ART
do just that: it directs the
reasoning process in order that
man may acquire knowledge of the
truth in an orderly way, with ease
and without error.
 Introduction to Logic
We defined Logic as the science and art which helps our
mind to distinguish between the correct from the incorrect.
Therefore…

 Purpose of Logic

 Focus of Attention

 Main Specific Task

 Introduction to Logic
We defined Logic as the science and art which helps
our mind to distinguish between the correct from the
incorrect. Therefore…
 to attain clarity in our
 Purpose of Logic thoughts and validity in our
process of inference.

 Focus of Attention

 Main Specific Task

 Introduction to Logic
We defined Logic as the science and art which helps
our mind to distinguish between the correct from the
incorrect. Therefore…
 to attain clarity in our
 Purpose of Logic thoughts and validity in our
process of inference.
 reasoning, arguments, and
 Focus of Attention
the drawing of inferences.

 Main Specific Task

 Introduction to Logic
We defined Logic as the science and art which helps
our mind to distinguish between the correct from the
incorrect. Therefore…
 to attain clarity in our
 Purpose of Logic thoughts and validity in
our process of inference.

 reasoning, arguments,
 Focus of Attention and the drawing of
inferences.
 to distinguish between
 Main Specific Task good and bad reasoning
and between correct and
incorrect arguments.
 Introduction to Logic
To be able to distinguish the correct from the incorrect,
logicians should engage themselves in three distinct
activities: Analysis, Classification and Assessment.
 The first activity of the logicians is the Analysis of the
arguments; i.e., the determination between an argument
and a non-argument.
 logicians should free himself from irrelevant
language, i.e., from rhetoric which is
incapable of attaining truth.

 consequently, logic should free itself from

flowery language (use of pretentious terms that
may be irrelevant to truth) and from vague
terminology.
 Introduction to Logic
 The next activity should be the Classification of the
arguments into types and subtypes; this includes the
distinction between deductive and inductive arguments.

 DEDUCTIVE

 INDUCTIVE
 Introduction to Logic
 The next activity should be the Classification of the
arguments into types and subtypes; this includes the
distinction between deductive and inductive arguments.
 It is the process of argumentation by
which we conclude from a Universal
proposition to a Less Universal
 DEDUCTIVE (Singular or Particular)

 INDUCTIVE Example

All ACT students are studious.  U

And, Mark is an ACT student.  S
Therefore, Mark is studious. S
 Introduction to Logic
 The next activity should be the Classification of the
arguments into types and subtypes; this includes the
distinction between deductive and inductive arguments.
 It is the process of argumentation by
which we conclude from a Less
Universal (Singular or Particular) to a
 DEDUCTIVE Universal proposition

Example
 INDUCTIVE
Mark is studious. S
And, Mark is an ACT student.  S
: ., ACT students are studious.  U
 Introduction to Logic

 The classification of such arguments helps us in order

to get used to the use of arguments and therefore
master it.

 Mastering logic will eventually help us in the use of

methods towards the attainment of truth.

 Analysis and classification are only preludes to the main

focus of logic – the Assessment of the arguments. The
last activity of the logician is therefore to determine the
correctness and the incorrectness of certain arguments.
 Introduction to Logic
 The Importance of the Study of Logic

Knowledge of the methods and principles of logic is very

important because knowledge is better than ignorance.

1. The first significance of logic is that if one understands

its principles, he will be able to reduce the likelihood of
being deceived by the faulty arguments of others.

 All of us will always be subjected to

deception. Understanding the
methods and principles of logic can
help us avoid being taken by phony 
or deceptive arguments.
 Introduction to Logic
 The Importance of the Study of Logic

Knowledge of the methods and principles of logic is very important

because knowledge is better than ignorance.

2. understanding the principles enhances one’s ability to clarify

one’s beliefs.

All of us have been subject to certain

beliefs. But most of these beliefs are
vague. Logic gives us tools to restate
them in such a way that we may more
readily decide whether they are worthy of
assent.
 Introduction to Logic
 The Importance of the Study of Logic

Knowledge of the methods and principles of logic is very important

because knowledge is better than ignorance.

3. Understanding the principles of logic may

aid us in the quest for knowledge.

In as much as Logic involves reasoning, it can therefore aid

us in distinguishing between the correct from the incorrect
reasoning. The students are not only aim of getting high
grades in logic; they are expected, first and foremost to
apply the principles of logic in their daily living.

TWA: 1.00
 Division of Logic

Symbolic mathematical
logic

sequence or
Formal following of
rules
Aristotelian

content or
Material
subject matter
 Division of Logic

Symbolic Logic  known as mathematical logic.

 unlike traditional logic, it uses symbols in
the analysis of the arguments.

Example:
If the rain continues, then there will be a flood. R  F
If the rain continues and there will be flood, then the (R . F)  B
bridge will collapse.
If the continuation of rain will cause the bridge to (R  B)  T
collapse, then there will be very heavy traffic.
Either there is no traffic or the engineers made a ~TE
mistake in building the bridge.
Therefore, the engineers made a mistake in building  E
the bridge.
 Division of Logic

 Traditional Logic  the first known method in order to attain a

certain demonstrated knowledge.
 It uses syllogistic method, which is typically deductive because it
reasons out from universal propositions into particular or less universal
propositions.

Example:
All Filipinos are respectable individuals. universal
But the Badjaos are Filipinos.
less
: ., The Badjaos are respectable individuals.
universal
1st argument 2nd argument
All orchids are flowers Love is blind
But waling-waling is an But, God is love
orchid : ., waling-waling is a : ., God is blind.
flower.

Both of them share a

common scheme, form
or structure

In this argument, the conclusion In this argument, the conclusion

“waling-waling is a flower” has “God is blind.” does not follow
an internal and external necessarily from the premises,
consistency with the premises although its structure is the
same as the 1st argument.

In this case, Aristotelian Logic should be divided into Formal

Logic and Material Logic
Formal Logic – is concerned with the rules governing the structure and
validity of argument forms or patterns.
 It is concerned with the aspect of form
 This has to do with the correctness or sequence or the
following of rules.

Example 1
All human beings are rational.
But Plato is a human being. This argument is valid
because it follows a
: ., Plato is rational sequence.

Example 2
All human beings are rational.
This argument is invalid,
But Plato is a human being.
it does not follow its own
: ., Aristotle is rational.
rules because it has no
sequence.
Material Logic – is concerned with the meaning and truth of the concept
and sentences, which comprise a syllogism.
 it is concerned with the aspect of subject matter or
content or truth.

Example

All human beings are rational. Human being, rational and

But Plato is a human being. Plato are the subject
matters or contents of this
: ., Plato is rational argument.

This argument is valid and sound only insofar as Plato is really a human
being or man. But supposing that Plato for you is the name of your dog
and you are actually referring to your dog named Plato, then, while it can
be considered valid structurally, it is not sound due to the falsity of some
propositions.
Moreover, there are three orders of rational operation, which are also
known as the three acts of the mind.
 Simple Apprehension – the grasping of an idea or an essence of
a thing without affirming or denying something about it. Ex.:
Man

 Judgment – affirming or denying something of something

else. (by way of subject and predicate)
Ex.: Man is rational. (affirmation)
Man is not an angel. (denial)
 Reasoning – proceeding to new knowledge from previous
knowledge.
Ex.: Man is rational. new knowledge
Pedro is a man. derived from the
Pedro is rational. previous knowledge
These three acts of the mind suggest a natural threefold division of
formal logic into:

1. Logic of ideas or concepts or terms

2. Logic of proposition
3. Logic of arguments

However, in our understanding of the methods and principles of

logical thinking, it is necessary that we apprehend the essence or
quiddity (whatness) of a formal concept or a mental word through
its external sign, i.e., through its oral or written form. In this case,
we have to know first the basic functions of language, as well as
the manner by which it was spoken or written.
 The Three Basic Functions of Language

William Beveridge once said that “careful and correct use of

language is a powerful aid to straight thinking, for putting into
words precisely what we mean necessitates getting our own
minds quite clear on what we mean.”

1. Informative function: Language is being used informatively

when it is used to communicate information.

 It is used to express a truth claim, i.e., to claim that

what is asserted is true.

 This informative function is accomplished by

formulating an affirming or even denying of
propositions.
Ex. Logic is the study of correct reasoning
2. Expressive function: Language here is used in order to
express certain emotions that the poet felt very keenly and
to evoke similar feelings in the reader or in the listener.

 Language serves the expressive function whenever

it is used to vent or to arouse feelings or emotions.

Ex. I think that I shall never see

a poem as lovely as a tree.

3. Directive function: Language serves the directive function when

it is intended to cause or prevent actions.

 It may seen in the issuing of commands, requests,

instructions, or recommendations
  The language is intended to get results, it
causes actions of the indicated kind.
Ex. Arm yourselves of noble hearts. Arm yourselves. Drive
away the patient toleration of sufferings. [Emilio Jacinto:
Pahayag (1897)]

 Both the directive and the expressive discourses are neither true
nor false.

 for example, a command such as "Stop that"

usually involves both expressive and directive
functions jointly.

 Consequently, an expression of emotion may also be neither true

nor false, i.e., it only depends on the listener whether to believe or
to accept the uttered emotional discourse.
Some logicians assert another function of language – the Inquiry
Function: Language serves the inquiry function when it is intended
to draw or gain information.

 It may seen in the asking of questions.

 In as much as arguments consists of statements or proposition, and

statements are without exception instances of language used
informatively , i.e., they are used in order to categorize whether
statements are true or false,

 Therefore, the primary concern of logic is the informative function.