Lecture-2 Recap Lecture-1
Introduction to the course title, Formal and In-
formal languages, Alphabets, Strings, Null
string, Words, Valid and In-valid alphabets,
length of a string, Reverse of a string, Defining
languages, Descriptive definition of languages,
EQUAL, EVEN-EVEN, INTEGER, EVEN, { an bn},
{ an bn an }, factorial, FACTORIAL,
DOUBLEFACTORIAL, SQUARE, DOUBLESQUARE,
PRIME, PALINDROME.
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Kleene Star Closure
Given Σ, then the Kleene Star Closure of the
alphabet Σ, denoted by Σ*, is the collection
of all strings defined over Σ, including Λ.
It is to be noted that Kleene Star Closure can
be defined over any set of strings.
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Examples
If Σ = {x}
Then Σ* = {Λ, x, xx, xxx, xxxx, ….}
If Σ = {0,1}
Then Σ* = {Λ, 0, 1, 00, 01, 10, 11, ….}
If Σ = {aaB, c} d
Then Σ* = {Λ, aaB, c, aaBaaB, aaBc, caaB,
cc, ….}
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Note
Languages generated by Kleene Star Closure
of set of strings, are infinite languages. (By
infinite language, it is supposed that the
language contains infinite many words, each
of finite length).
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Task
Q)
1) Let S={ab, bb} and T={ab, bb, bbbb} Show
that S* = T* [Hint S* T* and T* S*]
2) Let S={ab, bb} and T={ab, bb, bbb} Show
that S* ≠ T* But S* T*
3) Let S={a, bb, bab, abaab} be a set of
strings. Are abbabaabab and baabbbabbaabb
in S*? Does any word in S* have odd number
of b’s?
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PLUS Operation (+)
Plus Operation is same as Kleene Star Closure
except that it does not generate Λ (null string),
automatically.
Example:
If Σ = {0,1}
Then Σ+ = {0, 1, 00, 01, 10, 11, ….}
If Σ = {aab, c}
Then Σ+ = {aab, c, aabaab, aabc, caab, cc, ….}
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TASK
Q1)Is there any case when S+ contains Λ? If
yes then justify your answer.
Q2) Prove that for any set of strings S
i. (S+)*=(S*)*
ii. (S+)+=S+
iii. Is (S*)+=(S+)*
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Remark
It is to be noted that Kleene Star can also be
operated on any string i.e. a* can be considered
to be all possible strings defined over {a}, which
shows that a* generates
Λ, a, aa, aaa, …
It may also be noted that a+ can be considered
to be all possible non empty strings defined over
{a}, which shows that a+ generates
a, aa, aaa, aaaa, …
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Defining Languages Continued…
Recursive definition of languages
The following three steps are used in recursive
definition
1. Some basic words are specified in the
language.
2. Rules for constructing more words are defined
in the language.
3. No strings except those constructed in above,
are allowed to be in the language.
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Example
Defining language of INTEGER
Step 1:
1 is in INTEGER.
Step 2:
If x is in INTEGER then x+1 and x-1 are also in
INTEGER.
Step 3:
No strings except those constructed in above, are
allowed to be in INTEGER.
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Example
Defining language of EVEN
Step 1:
2 is in EVEN.
Step 2:
If x is in EVEN then x+2 and x-2 are also in
EVEN.
Step 3:
No strings except those constructed in above,
are allowed to be in EVEN.
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Example
Defining the language factorial
Step 1:
As 0!=1, so 1 is in factorial.
Step 2:
n!=n*(n-1)! is in factorial.
Step 3:
No strings except those constructed in above,
are allowed to be in factorial.
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Defining the language PALINDROME, defined
over Σ = {a,b}
Step 1:
a and b are in PALINDROME
Step 2:
if x is palindrome, then s(x)Rev(s) and xx will also
be palindrome, where s belongs to Σ*
Step 3:
No strings except those constructed in above,
are allowed to be in palindrome
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Defining the language {anbn }, n=1,2,3,… ,
of strings defined over Σ={a,b}
Step 1:
ab is in {anbn}
Step 2:
if x is in {anbn}, then axb is in {anbn}
Step 3:
No strings except those constructed in
above, are allowed to be in {anbn}
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Defining the language L, of strings ending in a
, defined over Σ={a,b}
Step 1:
a is in L
Step 2:
if x is in L then s(x) is also in L, where s belongs to
Σ*
Step 3:
No strings except those constructed in above,
are allowed to be in L
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Defining the language L, of strings beginning
and ending in same letters , defined over Σ={a,
b}
Step 1:
a and b are in L
Step 2:
(a)s(a) and (b)s(b) are also in L, where s belongs to Σ*
Step 3:
No strings except those constructed in above, are
allowed to be in L
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Defining the language L, of strings containing
aa or bb , defined over Σ={a, b}
Step 1:
aa and bb are in L
Step 2:
s(aa)s and s(bb)s are also in L, where s belongs to
Σ*
Step 3:
No strings except those constructed in above, are
allowed to be in L
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Defining the language L, of strings containing
exactly aa, defined over Σ={a, b}
Step 1:
aa is in L
Step 2:
s(aa)s is also in L, where s belongs to b*
Step 3:
No strings except those constructed in above,
are allowed to be in L
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Summing Up
Kleene Star Closure, Plus operation, recursive
definition of languages, INTEGER, EVEN,
factorial, PALINDROME, {anbn}, languages of
strings (i) ending in a, (ii) beginning and ending
in same letters, (iii) containing aa or bb
(iv)containing exactly aa,
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