Vibration…

Vibration is a
mechanical phenomenon
whereby oscillations
occur about an
equilibrium point. The
word comes from Latin
vibrationem. The
oscillations may be
periodic, such as the
motion of a pendulum—
or random, such as the
movement of a tire on a
gravel road.
 VIBRATION

CHARACTERISTICS OF VIBRATION SIGNAL

 AMPLITUDE

 FREQUENCY

 PHASE
 TYPES OF VIBRATION PICK UP

 PROXIMITY PROBE ===== Displacement ==== Micron

 VELOCITY PICK UP ===== Velocity ==== mm/sec

 ACCELEROMETER ====== Acceleration ==== g

 Displacement Sensors
 Pro’s and Con’s
– Pro’s
» Measures Displacement
» Rugged
– Con’s
» Limited Frequency Range (0-1000Hz)
» Susceptible to electrical or mechanical runout
» Installation Issues
 Velocity Sensors
 Pro’s and Con’s
– Pro’s
» Measures Velocity
» Easier Installation than Displacement
– Con’s
» Limited Frequency Range (0-2000Hz)
» Susceptible to Calibration Problems
» Large Size
 Acceleration Sensors
 Pro’s and Con’s
– Pro’s
» Measures Accel.
» Small Size
» Easily Installed
» Large Frequency Range (1-10,000 Hz)
– Con’s
» Measures Acceleration (requires Integration to Vel.)
» Susceptible to Shock & Requires Power
 UNITS OF VIBRATION
(A) DISPLACEMENT
 MICRONS, PEAK TO PEAK
 MICRONS, 0 TO PEAK
 MICRONS, RMS

(B) VELOCITY
 MM/SEC, 0 TO PEAK
 MM/SEC, RMS

(C)ACCELERATION
 M/SEC2, PEAK
 M/SEC2, RMS
 G, PEAK
 G, RMS
 UNITS OF VIBRATION

RMS 0 - Peak
Average

Peak - Peak

RMS = 0.707 x (0-Peak)

Average = 0.637 x (0-Peak)
Peak to Peak = 2 x (0-Peak)
Relationships of Acceleration, Velocity
and Displacement
 Automated Monitoring
Concepts

Looseness
 Detect Detailed Machinery Problems Problem!
– Unbalance, Misalignment, Looseness, Shaft Cracks,
Oil Whirl, Phase, Rubs, Gear and Bearing Problems
Signal Processing Flow
Transducer
Waveform

Amplitude
Time

FFT
Spectrum

Amplitude

Data Collector/Analyzer Frequency

 Time Waveform
Amplitude
Heavy Spot
+

0 Time

360 degrees
-
Rotation
1 revolution
3600 rpm = 3600 cycles per minute
60 Hz = 60 cycles per second
1 order = one times turning speed
 Time Waveform
Amplitude
+

0 Time

-
1000 rpm 1 revolution
4 blades = vibration occurs 4 times per revolution
4 x 1000 rpm = vibration occurs at 4000 cycles per minute
= 4000 cpm
 Time Waveform
Amplitude
+

12 tooth
gear 0 Time

-
1 revolution
1000 rpm
12 teeth are meshing every revolution of the gear
12 x 1000 rpm = vibration occurs at 12,000 cycles per minute
= 2,000 cpm = 200 Hz
+

0 Time

0 Time

+
0 Time
-
 Complex Time Waveform

Time Waveform contains all the different

frequencies mixed together
+

0 Time

-
Complex Time Waveform

Time Waveform contains all the different

frequencies mixed together
We are now entering the Frequency Domain
• FFT - Fast Fourier Transform
• Separates individual frequencies
• Detects how much vibration at each
frequency
TIME WAVEFORM

AMPLITUDE VS TIME
 Amplitude

Frequency
Time
Amplitude

Amplitude
ncy
Time
r eque
F
Amplitude

Time
0 Time

- 1x
Frequency

0 Time

- 4x Frequency

+ Time
0
- 12x Frequency
Predefined Spectrum Analysis Bands
1xRPM - BALANCE
1.8

1.5 2xRPM - ALIGNMENT

1.2 3-5xRPM - LOOSENESS

0.9
ANTI-FRICTION BEARINGS & GEARMESH
0.6
5-25xRPM 25-65xRPM
0.3

20000
5000 10000 15000

Frequency Hz
 SIGNATURE ANALYSIS

 Which frequencies exist and what are the relationships

to the fundamental exciting frequencies.
 What are the amplitudes of each peak
 How do the peaks relate to each other
 If there are significant peaks, what are their source

www.maskindynamikk.no
 COUPLE UNBALANCE

 1800 out of phase on the same shaft

 1X RPM always present and normally dominates
 Amplitude varies with square of increasing speed
 Can cause high axial as well as radial amplitudes
 Balancing requires Correction in two planes at 180o

www.maskindynamikk.no
OVERHUNG ROTOR UNBALANCE

 1X RPM present in radial and axial directions

 Axial readings tend to be in-phase but radial readings
might be unsteady
 Overhung rotors often have both force and couple
unbalance each of which may require correction

www.maskindynamikk.no
 Diagnosing Unbalance
 Vibration frequency
equals rotor speed. 900
 Vibration predominantly
RADIAL in direction.
 Stable vibration phase
900
measurement.
 Vibration increases as
square of speed.
 Vibration phase shifts in
direct proportion to
measurement direction.

www.maskindynamikk.no
 ECCENTRIC ROTOR

 Largest vibration at 1X RPM in the direction of the

centerline of the rotors
 Comparative phase readings differ by 00 or 1800
 Attempts to balance will cause a decrease in amplitude
in one direction but an increase may occur in the other
direction
www.maskindynamikk.no
 ANGULAR MISALIGNMENT

 Characterized by high axial vibration

 1800 phase change across the coupling
 Typically high 1 and 2 times axial vibration
 Not unusual for 1, 2 or 3X RPM to dominate
 Symptoms could indicate coupling problems

www.maskindynamikk.no
 PARALLEL MISALIGNMENT

1x 2x
4x
Radial

 High radial vibration 1800 out of phase

 Severe conditions give higher harmonics
 2X RPM often larger than 1X RPM
 Similar symptoms to angular misalignment
 Coupling design can influence spectrum shape and
amplitude
 BENT SHAFT

 Bent shaft problems cause high axial vibration

 1X RPM dominant if bend is near shaft center
 2X RPM dominant if bend is near shaft ends
 Phase difference in the axial direction will tend
towards 1800 difference

www.maskindynamikk.no
 MISALIGNED BEARING

 Vibration symptoms similar to angular misalignment

 Attempts to realign coupling or balance the rotor will not
alleviate the problem.
 Will cause a twisting motion with approximately 1800
phase shift side to side or top to bottom

www.maskindynamikk.no
OTHER SOURCES OF HIGH AXIAL
VIBRATION
a. Bent Shafts
b. Shafts in Resonant Whirl
c. Bearings Cocked on the Shaft
d. Resonance of Some Component in the Axial
Direction
e. Worn Thrust Bearings
f. Worn Helical or Bevel Gears
g. A Sleeve Bearing Motor Hunting for its Magnetic
Center
h. Couple Component of a Dynamic Unbalance
 MECHANICAL LOOSENESS (A)

 Caused by structural looseness of machine feet

 Distortion of the base will cause “soft foot” problems
 Phase analysis will reveal aprox 1800 phase shift in the
vertical direction between the baseplate components of
the machine
 MECHANICAL LOOSENESS (B)

 Caused by loose pillowblock bolts

 Can cause 0.5, 1, 2 and 3X RPM
 Sometimes caused by cracked frame structure or
bearing block
 SLEEVE BEARING
WEAR / CLEARANCE PROBLEMS

 Later stages of sleeve bearing wear will give a large

family of harmonics of running speed
 A minor unbalance or misalignment will cause high
amplitudes when excessive bearing clearances are
present
 MECHANICAL LOOSENESS (C)

 Phase is often unstable

 Will have many harmonics
 Can be caused by a loose bearing liner, excessive
bearing clearance or a loose impeller on a shaft
 ROTOR RUB

Truncated waveform

 Similar spectrum to mechanical looseness

 Usually generates a series of frequencies which may
excite natural frequencies
 Subharmonic frequencies may be present
 Rub may be partial or through a complete revolution.
 RESONANCE

 Resonance occurs when the Forcing Frequency

coincides with a Natural Frequency
 1800 phase change occurs when shaft speed passes
through resonance
 High amplitudes of vibration will be present when
a system is in resonance
 BELT PROBLEMS (D)
BELT RESONANCE

RADIAL

1X RPM

BELT RESONANCE

 High amplitudes can be present if the belt natural

frequency coincides with driver or driven RPM
 Belt natural frequency can be changed by altering the
belt tension
 BELT PROBLEMS (A)
WORN, LOOSE OR MISMATCHED BELTS

BELT FREQUENCY
HARMONICS

 Often 2X RPM is dominant

 Amplitudes are normally unsteady, sometimes pulsing with
either driver or driven RPM
 Wear or misalignment in timing belt drives will give high
amplitudes at the timing belt frequency
 Belt frequencies are below the RPM of either the driver or the
driven
 BELT PROBLEMS (C)
ECCENTRIC PULLEYS

RADIAL
1X RPM OF
ECCENTRIC
PULLEY

 Eccentric or unbalanced pulleys will give a high 1X

RPM of the pulley
 The amplitude will be highest in line with the belts
 Beware of trying to balance eccentric pulleys
 BELT PROBLEMS (B)
BELT / PULLEY MISALIGNMENT

1X DRIVER
OR DRIVEN

 Pulley misalignment will produce high axial vibration

at 1X RPM
 Often the highest amplitude on the motor will be at the
fan RPM
 HYDRAULIC AND
AERODYNAMIC FORCES
BPF = BLADE PASS
FREQUENCY

 If gap between vanes and casing is not equal, Blade Pass

Frequency may have high amplitude
 High BPF may be present if impeller wear ring seizes on
shaft
 Eccentric rotor can cause amplitude at BPF to be excessive
 HYDRAULIC AND
AERODYNAMIC FORCES

FLOW TURBULENCE

 Flow turbulence often occurs in blowers due to

variations in pressure or velocity of air in ducts
 Random low frequency vibration will be generated,
possibly in the 50 - 2000 CPM range
 HYDRAULIC AND AERODYNAMIC
FORCES

CAVITATION

 Cavitation will generate random, high frequency broadband

energy superimposed with BPF harmonics
 Normally indicates inadequate suction pressure
 Erosion of impeller vanes and pump casings may occur if left
unchecked
 Sounds like gravel passing through pump
 BEAT VIBRATION
WIDEBAND SPECTRUM

F1 F2

ZOOM
SPECTRUM

 A beat is the result of two closely spaced frequencies

going into and out of phase
 The wideband spectrum will show one peak pulsating up
and down
 The difference between the peaks is the beat frequency
which itself will be present in the wideband spectrum
 ELECTRICAL PROBLEMS

STATOR ECCENTRICITY
SHORTED LAMINATIONS
AND LOOSE IRON

 Stator problems generate high amplitudes at

2FL (2X line frequency )
 Stator eccentricity produces uneven stationary air
gap, vibration is very directional
 Soft foot can produce an eccentric stator
 FREQUENCIES PRODUCED BY ELECTRICAL
MOTORS.

• Electrical
Electrical line
line frequency.(
frequency.(FL
FL)) == 50Hz
50Hz == 3000
3000 cpm.
cpm.
60HZ
60HZ == 3600
3600 cpm
cpm
• No
No of
of poles.
poles. ((P
P))
• Rotor
Rotor Bar
Bar Pass
Pass Frequency
Frequency ((Fb
Fb)) == No
No of
of rotor
rotor bars
bars xx
Rotor
Rotor rpm.
rpm.
• Synchronous
Synchronous speed
speed ((Ns Ns)) == 2xFL
2xFL
P
P
• Slip
Slip frequency
frequency (( FFSS )=
)= Synchronous
Synchronous speed
speed -- Rotor
Rotor rpm.
rpm.
• Pole
Pole pass
pass frequency
frequency ((FFPP )=
)= Slip
Slip Frequency
Frequency xx No
No of
of Poles.
Poles.
 ELECTRICAL PROBLEMS

SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR
(Loose Stator Coils)

 Loose stator coils in synchronous motors generate high

amplitude at Coil Pass Frequency
 The coil pass frequency will be surrounded by 1X
RPM sidebands
 ELECTRICAL PROBLEMS

POWER SUPPLY
PHASE PROBLEMS
(Loose Connector)

 Phasing problems can cause excessive vibration at 2FL

with 1/3 FL sidebands
 Levels at 2FL can exceed 25 mm/sec if left uncorrected
 Particular problem if the defective connector is only
occasionally making contact
 ELECTRICAL PROBLEMS

ECCENTRIC
ECCENTRICROTOR ROTOR
((Variable
VariableAir Gap))
AirGap

 Eccentric rotors produce a rotating variable air gap,

this induces pulsating vibration
 Often requires zoom spectrum to separate 2FL and
running speed harmonic
 Common values of FP range from 20 - 120 CPM
 ELECTRICAL PROBLEMS

DC MOTOR PROBLEMS

 DC motor problems can be detected by the higher than

normal amplitudes at SCR firing rate
 These problems include broken field windings
 Fuse and control card problems can cause high amplitude
peaks at frequencies of 1X to 5X Line Frequency
 ELECTRICAL PROBLEMS
ROTOR PROBLEMS

 1X, 2X, 3X, RPM with pole pass frequency sidebands

indicates rotor bar problems.
 2X line frequency sidebands on rotor bar pass
frequency (RBPF) indicates loose rotor bars.
 Often high levels at 2X & 3X rotor bar pass frequency
and only low level at 1X rotor bar pass frequency.
ROTOR BAR FREQUENCIES
(SLOT NOISE)

POLE POLE

MINIMUM MAXIMUM

MAX

MIN
www.maskindynamikk.no
 CALCULATION OF GEAR MESH
FREQUENCIES
1700 RPM

51 TEETH

31 TEETH
20 TEETH

8959 RPM -- HOW MANY TEETH ON THIS GEAR?

 GEARS
NORMAL SPECTRUM

2625 rpm
8 teeth GMF= 21k CPM

1500 rpm
14 teeth

 Normal spectrum shows 1X and 2X and gear mesh

frequency GMF
 GMF commonly will have sidebands of running speed
 All peaks are of low amplitude and no natural
frequencies are present
 GEARS
TOOTH LOAD

 Gear Mesh Frequencies are often sensitive to load

 High GMF amplitudes do not necessarily indicate a
problem
 Each analysis should be performed with the system at
maximum load
 GEARS
TOOTH WEAR

8 teeth GMF = 21k CPM

2625 rpm

14 teeth
1500 rpm

 Wear is indicated by excitation of natural frequencies

along with sidebands of 1X RPM of the bad gear
 Sidebands are a better wear indicator than the GMF
 GMF may not change in amplitude when wear occurs
 GEARS
GEAR ECCENTRICITY AND BACKLASH

 Fairly high amplitude sidebands around GMF suggest

eccentricity, backlash or non parallel shafts
 The problem gear will modulate the sidebands
 Incorrect backlash normally excites gear natural
frequency
 GEARS
GEAR MISALIGNMENT

 Gear misalignment almost always excites second order

or higher harmonics with sidebands of running speed
 Small amplitude at 1X GMF but higher levels at 2X
and 3X GMF
 Important to set Fmax high enough to capture at least
2X GMF
 GEARS
CRACKED / BROKEN TOOTH

TIME WAVEFORM

 A cracked or broken tooth will generate a high

amplitude at 1X RPM of the gear
 It will excite the gear natural frequency which will be
sidebanded by the running speed fundamental
 Best detected using the time waveform
 Time interval between impacts will be the reciprocal of
the 1X RPM
 D0 Nb Bd (
DB D1
BPFI = 2 ( 1 + Pd COS XRPM

Bd COS
(
BPFO = Nb
2 ( 1 - Pd X RPM

2
Bd
(1 - ( P
Pd COS
(( XRPM
BSF = 2Bd d

1 B
(1-P COS
d (
X RPM
FTF = 2 d

Note : shaft turning

outer race fixed
F = frequency in cpm
N = number of balls
 ROLLING ELEMENT BEARINGS
STAGE 1 FAILURE MODE

ZONE A ZONE B ZONE C ZONE D

gSE

 Earliest indications in the ultrasonic range

 These frequencies evaluated by Spike EnergyTM gSE, HFD(g) and
Shock Pulse
 Spike Energy may first appear at about 0.25 gSE for this first stage
 ROLLING ELEMENT BEARINGS
STAGE 2 FAILURE MODE

ZONE A
ZONE B ZONE C ZONE D

gSE

 Slight defects begin to ring bearing component natural

frequencies
 These frequencies occur in the range of 30k-120k CPM
 At the end of Stage 2, sideband frequencies appear above and
below natural frequency
 Spike Energy grows e.g. 0.25-0.50gSE
 ROLLING ELEMENT BEARINGS
STAGE 3 FAILURE MODE

ZONE A ZONE B ZONE C ZONE D

gSE

 Bearing defect frequencies and harmonics appear

 Many defect frequency harmonics appear with wear the number of
sidebands grow
 Wear is now visible and may extend around the periphery of the
bearing
 Spike Energy increases to between 0.5 -1.0 gSE
 ROLLING ELEMENT BEARINGS
STAGE 4 FAILURE MODE

ZONE A ZONE B ZONE C

gSE

High just prior

to failure

 Discreet bearing defect frequencies disappear and are replaced by

random broad band vibration in the form of a noise floor
 Towards the end, even the amplitude at 1 X RPM is effected
 High frequency noise floor amplitudes and Spike Energy may in
fact decrease
 Just prior to failure gSE may rise to high levels
 GEARS
HUNTING TOOTH
f
Ht = (GMF)Na
(TGEAR)(TPINION)

 Vibration is at low frequency and due to this can often

be missed
 Synonymous with a growling sound
 The effect occurs when the faulty pinion and gear teeth
both enter mesh at the same time
 Faults may be due to faulty manufacture or mishandling
 OIL WHIP INSTABILITY
oil whip

oil whirl

 Oil whip may occur if a machine is operated at 2X

the rotor critical frequency.
 When the rotor drives up to 2X critical, whirl is close
to critical and excessive vibration will stop the oil
film from supporting the shaft.
 Whirl speed will lock onto rotor critical. If the speed
is increased the whipfrequency will not increase.
 OIL WHIRL INSTABILITY

 Usually occurs at 42 - 48 % of running speed

 Vibration amplitudes are sometimes severe
 Whirl is inherently unstable, since it increases centrifugal
forces therefore increasing whirl forces