Discharge Measurement Using
Artificial Structures
PREPARED BY: MELCHIN I. LACAYANGA
The structures, such as notches, weirs, and flumes, are frequently used to
measure flow in laboratories. If the physical and hydraulic conditions at the
site permit, a fixed, undeformable structure may be constructed to measure
river flow. A number of hydraulic structures are used to measure flows in field
conditions, and these are listed here.
• a) Thin-plate, sharp crest weirs consisting of a vertically set metal plate: v-notch or
rectangular;
• b) Broad-crested weirs: made of concrete or masonry and are used for large discharges;
• c) Triangular or Trapezoidal profile weirs;
• d) Flumes: Rectangular, Trapezoidal, U-shaped, Parshall or SANIIRI. These have clearly
specified shape and dimensions and are made of concrete, masonry, or metal sheets
depending on their use and location. They depend primarily on the width constriction to
produce a control section.
WEIRS
Weirs are used to control upstream water level (to divert water in
another channel) or for measuring discharge or for both. They
produce a critical relationship between stage and discharge by
obstructing channel flow; the head over the crest of the weir can be
related to discharge. Weirs have a defined cross-section (either
rectangular or triangular) and hence the computation of discharge is
simple.
Rating of the weir and
flumes is carried 0ut based
on laboratory calibration.
However, the rating should
be checked after
construction. The hydraulic
principle that governs the
use of weirs or flumes is that
these structures produce a
unique control section in the
flow. At these structures, the
river discharge is a function
of the head of water:
Q=f(H) (4.18)
Where Q is discharge (m3/s), and H is the head of the Water (m) at the structure. For weirs, the equation
becomes:
Q = K H^n (4.19)
Where K and n are constant. Eq. (4.19) is applicable if the downstream water level is below a certain
limiting water level known as the modular limit. Free flow are those flows that are unaffected by the
downstream flow conditions. For a two-dimensional weir, the discharge is estimated as
Q= Cd √g b H^1.5 (4.20)
where Cd is the discharge coefficient, g is the acceleration due to gravity, and b is the crest width
(m). The flow that is affected by tailwater conditions is known as drowned or submerged flow.
Discharge under drowned conditions is obtained by applying a reduction factor to the free flow
discharge.
FLUMES
A flume is a flow measuring structure formed by a constriction in
a channel. The constriction can be either a narrowing section of the
channel or a narrowing section in combination with a hump in the
invert. Critical conditions are produced providing sufficient amount
of constriction. In such cases, a unique stage-discharge relationship
exists independent of the downstream conditions.
For a rectangular flume, the discharge of an ideal fluid is expressed as
Short-Throated Flumes
In these flumes, the curvature of the water surface is large and
the flow in the throat is not parallel to the invert of the flume. The
principle of operation of these flumes is the same as that of long-
throated flumes, i.e., the critical condition is created at the throat.
However, analytical derivation of the discharge equation is not
possible since large curvature of flow produces non-hydrostatic
pressure distribution.
Advanced Discharge Measurement
Techniques
Conventional methods of flow measurement by the use of open
channel sections or calibrated structures are not always feasible
because of channel size, unstable stage-discharge relationships, or
other physical, hydraulic, or environmental considerations (such as
aesthetic, navigation and fisheries impacts) and costs. Three
relatively new methods of flow measurement in open channels that
have gained importance in recent times are:
Dilution methods,
Electromagnetic method, and
Ultrasonic method
Dilution Methods for Measuring Discharge
Measurements with the current meter are difficult or impossible
in boulder-strewn mountain torrents. Chemical dilution method
might be useful in such situations, but it is restricted to those
streams where mixing occurs readily.
Water samples are taken at a downstream point and after an
equilibrium concentration c2 is reached, the discharge Q can be
calculated as:
Electromagnetic Method
The electromagnetic gauge operates on a principle
similar to that of an electric dynamo. If a conductor of
certain length moves through a magnetic field, a voltage is
generated between the ends of the conductor.
Flow= function of (probe voltage x depth x calibration constant/ magnetic field)
Earth’s magnetic field, battery effects of the probes in the water, and external
electric noise causes problems in measurements. To overcome these, the magnetic
field produced by the coil is reversed at regular intervals. Measurements are taken
with the field switched first one way and then the other.
An electromagnetic gauge will only measure flows passing through the vertical
magnetic field generated by the coil. The velocity of any water passing outside the
measuring reach will register as negative, leading to errors in overall flow
calculation. If full range flow calculation is desired, careful selection of the site is
required to ensure it is not by-passed. Training embankments may be needed to
contain the full range of flows to be measured.
The accuracy of the electromagnetic method depends on the signal processing
equipment detecting and measuring small potentials sensed at the voltage probes.
The electromagnetic gauging station requires on-site calibration by current meter
or other means and a relation established between discharge and output.
