CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION TO POLYGRAPHY
Polygraph defined

Polygraph is an instrument that simultaneously records the changes of

physiological reactions in the human body as indicative of deception.

Thomas Jefferson was the first person known to use the term polygraph
to describe one of his inventions which could repeatedly rewrite words
in 1790.
Polygraphy defined

It is the scientific detection of deception through the aid or use of a polygraph

instrument.

Polygraph Examination defined

It is a process that encompasses all activities that take place between a

polygraph examiner and an examinee during a specific series of interactions. For
a valid polygraph examination to exist, respiration, electrodermal activity, and
cardiovascular
activity must be monitored and recorded. It is also termed "Forensic
Psychophysiological Detection of Deception
(PDD)".
Polygraph examination is different from polygraph test, because
polygraph test refers to techniques applied or used by the polygraph
examiner in a particular polygraph examination.
The examiner may administer polygraph examination using relevant-
irrelevant test, general question test, peak of tension test, comparison
question test or other tests/techniques available
in the field. The test or technique to be used by the polygraph examiner
depends on the nature or type of examination to be conducted.
Distinction Between Polygraph Examination and Lie
Detector Test
Technically, lie detector test covers all tests intended to detect
deception and verify truthfulness of an individual. Any test conducted
with or without an instrument for as long as the purpose of conducting
the test is to know whether the subject is lying or not is considered a lie
detector test. On the other hand, polygraph examination is one of the
lie detector tests available in the field today. Polygraph examination is
conducted using an instrument called polygraph, administered by a
polygraph examiner.
Polygraph Examiner defined

A polygraph examiner is one who is capable of detecting deception and

verifying the truthfulness of a statement through the use of a polygraph
instrument. He is someone who has successfully completed formal
education and training in conducting polygraph examinations and is
certified by his agency to conduct such examinations. Polygraph examiner
is also known as "Forensic Psychophysiologist".

Subject defined

Subject or examinee is any person who undergoes polygraph examination

Two Types of Polygraph Instrument
1. Conventional Polygraph Instrument
The conventional instrument is the old and traditional type of instrument
being used in polygraphy today. It records different systems of the human
body such as respiration, galvanic skin response or known today as
electrodermal response, and cardiovascular activity.
2. Computerized Polygraph Instrument
The computerized instrument is a sophisticated state of the art computer-
aided polygraph instrument. It allows the examiner to collect and store
physiological data from the subject in the easiest way with no hassle. It
records the same systems of the human body with that of the conventional
instrument. However, it has some additional features which are not
available in conventional instruments.
Uses of Polygraphy
1. Pre-Employment Screening - a test used to screen applicants for
employment. Some private companies in the Philippines require their
applicants to undergo polygraph screening tests.

In the United States, pre employment is applicable only to government

agencies like FBI, CIA, Secret Service, Department of Energy and the
like. Polygraph pre-employment test is prohibited due to the changes
made by the Employee Polygraph Protection Act of 1988 (EPPA) which
prohibits private companies to subject applicants to polygraph tests as
part of the screening process.
2. Periodic Audit - a test used to determine the honesty and integrity of
the present employee with the company.

In the US, periodic polygraph testing is also prohibited in private

companies under the EPPA. However in other countries including the
Philippines, it is applicable. According to some private companies, both
pre-employment and periodic polygraph testing provide an effective
preventive measure.

3. Case Investigation - a test commonly conducted in the field today

when there is an incident or issue under question.
4. Paired Testing - a polygraph test conducted when there are two
persons who assert contradictory statements. In this test, both persons
simultaneously undergo polygraph exams in separate rooms with
different examiners.

5. Post-Conviction Sex Offender Testing - a test conducted to those

convicted of sex crimes to monitor their behavior while under parole or
probation. Presently, this
provides effective monitoring procedures in the field today.
 
 CHAPTER 2
EARLY METHODS OF LIE DETECTION
Since the dawn of civilization, mankind has been seeking ways to
distinguish truths from lies among individuals suspected of criminal
wrongdoing. Various techniques were used for the verification of truth
and the detection of deception over the centuries - many of which
being ridiculous and cruel.
1. Trial by Combat (Wager of Battle, Trial by Battle or Judicial Duel)
It was a method to settle accusations in the absence of witnesses or a
confession where two parties in dispute fought in single combat. The
winner of the fight would be proclaimed innocent while the loser would
be adjudged guilty. It was one of the ancient judicial means of
determining guilt in England. It remained in use throughout the
European middle ages and gradually disappeared in the course of the
16th century.
2. Trial by Ordeal
A judicial practice where in the guilt or innocence of the accused is
determined by subjecting him to an unpleasant, usually dangerous,
experience. (In present terminologies, it would mean an employment
of a “3rd degree.") The word "ordeal" was derived from the Medieval
Latin word "Dei Indicum" which means “a miraculous decision." In
some cases, the accused are considered innocent if they survived the
test, or if their injuries healed. In other cases, only death is accepted as
a proof of innocence.
a. Ordeal of Heat and Fire - This method of ordeal encompasses a
number of sub-classifications of tests such as the Red Hot Iron Ordeal,
the Ordeal of Hot Needle, and the Boiling Water Ordeal among others.
In this test, the accused walks a certain distance, usually nine feet, over
red-hot iron. Innocence is sometimes established by a complete lack of
injury, but it is more common for the wound to be bndaged and re-
examined three days later by a priest, who would pronounce whether
God had intervened to heal it, or that it was merely festering - in case
of which, the suspect would be exiled or executed.
a.1. Ordeal of Hot Water - This test requires the accused to retrieve a
stone from a boiling water. The depth from which the stone had to be
retrieved depends on the number of accusations: up to the wrist for
one accusation and up to the elbow for three. The ordeal would take
place in a church, with several in attendance, purified and praying to
God to reveal the truth. Afterwards, the hand of the accused is bound
and examined after three days to see whether it was healing or
festering. If it is healing, the accused would be considered innocent,
otherwise, the accused is said to be guilty. It was practiced by the
Catholic churches until the 12th century.
a.2. Ordeal of Boiling Oil - This ordeal was practiced in villages in India
and certain parts of West Africa. There are two versions of this ordeal.
In one version, the accused parties are ordered to retrieve an item from
a container of boiling oil, with those who refused the task being found
guilty. In the other version of the trial, both the accused and the
accuser have to retrieve an item from boiling oil, with the person or
persons whose hand remains unscathed being declared innocent

a.3. Red Hot Iron Ordeal - The accused will be required to touch an
extremely hot metal nine (9) times (unless burned sooner) with his
tongue. If the tongue is burned, he will be judged guilty. In some
countries, they used a hot needle instead of hot iron to tease the lips.
In this case, the bleeding of the lips is an indication of guilt.
b.Ordeal of Cold Water -This ordeal has a precedent in the Code of Ur-
Nammu and the Code of Hammurabi. Under this ordeal, a man accused
of sorcery is to be submerged in a stream; if he survived, he is
acquitted.
 
In the 16th and 17th centuries, ordeal by water was associated with
witch hunts. An accused that sinks and usually drowns is considered
innocent, while a body that floats indicates witchcraft. Demonologists
developed inventive new theories about how it worked. Some argued
that witches float because they had renounced baptism when entering
the devil's service.
c. Ordeal of Rice Chewing - A method of detecting deception whereby an
accused will be required to take rice (to clergy bread or cheese). If the
accused failed to swallow even a single grain of concentrated rice, he/she
will be adjudged guilty.
 
Ancient China used dry rice to serve as their course. If the subject fails to
swallow the rice of spit out dry, he will be deemed guilty.
d. Ordeal of Red Water (Food and Drink Ordeal) - In this method the
accused will be required to run fast for twelve (12) hours, take a cup of
rice and drink dark-colored water (as much as one gallon). The dark
water is believed to be sacred water. As it enters the body, it will search
the heart and once it finds that the accused is innocent, it will serve as an
emetic and will cause the accused person to vomit the rice as evidence
of his innocence. This is also called "The Trial of the Eucharist."
e. Ordeal of the Cross - The ordeal of the cross was introduced in the
Early Middle Ages by the church in an attempt to discourage judicial
duels among the Germanic peoples. As with judicial duels, the accuser
has to undergo the ordeal together with the accused. They will stand
on either side of a cross and will stretch out their hands horizontally.
The one to first lower his arms will lose. This ordeal was prescribed by
Charlemagne. On the other hand, a decree of Lothar I abolished the
ordeal so as to avoid the mockery of Christ.
 
f. The Test of the Axe - In Greece, a suspended axe was spun in the
center of a group of suspects. Whosoever was in line with the blade
when the axe stops was supposed to be the guilty as pointed by divine
providence.
g. The Test of the Candle -This ordeal was used in Burma. The accuser
and the accused are each given identical candles which are lighted at
the same time. The candle that burns longer determines who speaks
the truth.
 
h. The “Hereditary Sieve" - Dr. Hans Gross mentioned this ordeal in his
famous book on Criminal Investigation in which beans were thrown into
a sieve as the name of each suspect was called. The deception criteria
were described as follows --- "If the bean jumps out of the sieve, the
owner of the name pronounced is innocent, if the bean remains in the
sieve, the person named is the thief."
i. Donkey's Tail (Ash tail) Ordeal - A method of ordeal where all
accused persons are instructed to select a cage with a donkey. They will
then strike the donkey's tail and whoever's chosen donkey cries first is
supposed to be adjudged guilty. Then, once one of the donkeys cries,
they will all be requested to get out of the cage and show their hands.
The true test is whosoever bears a clean hand is the guilty person. This
is based on the fact that the donkey's tail is coated with a lampblack.
Evidence showing a clean hand would indicate that the person did not
hold it tight and did not really strike the donkey to avoid detection.
 CHAPTER 3
IMPORTANT PERSONALITIES AND EVENTS IN THE
EVOLUTION OF POLYGRAPHY
The polygraph, or most commonly known as lie detector, has been in
existence in police science many, many years ago. Tracing back its
beginning, one may find out that there are several persons
instrumental in the development of the polygraph instrument as we
know it today - recording changes in respiration, galvanic skin response
(GSR) or electrodermal activity (EDA) and cardiovascular activity.
Daniel Defoe
In 1730, a year before Daniel Defoe died, he wrote an essay entitled "An
Effectual Scheme for the Immediate Preventing of the Street Robberies and
Suppressing All Other Disorders of the Night" where he suggested the use of
the pulse to detect deception. Defoe's essay called upon the attention of
many scientists to employ medical science in the fight against crime.
 
Angelo Mosso
In 1878, science came to the aid of the truth seeker through the research of
an Italian psychologist Angelo Mosso. He made use of an instrument called
plethysmograph in his research on emotion and fear and its influence on the
heart and respiration. Mosso also found out that the variation in blood
pressure and the circulation of blood in the brain during fear is far greater
than those resulting from the effect of mere noises and sounds.
Mosso devised a scientific cradle which was designed to measure the
flow of blood while a person lays on his back in a prone position, so
that the blood flow became concentrated first
in one part of the body and then in another. The cradle consisted of a
large, heavy table and a delicate knife-edge fulcrum at the center. A
heavy wooden plank rested securely and evenly on the fulcrum. A
heavy metal counterpoise, which could be adjusted up or down was
fastened vertically in the middle of the plank and secured with two
metal bars at each end of the plank in order to prevent swaying. When
the subject experienced emotion, the blood would rush to the head
and throw the cradle out of balance which in turn would be recorded
on a revolving smoked drum. A rubber cuff was also wrapped around
the subject's foot and connected by a tube to a tambour recording
pulse fluctuations.
Cesare Lombroso
 
In 1895, Cesare Lombroso, an Italian criminologist and tutor of Angelo
Mosso, published the second edition of his book entitled L'Homme
Criminel where he related the use of plethysmograph and
sphygmograph during interrogation of suspects. He made a
modification of the plethysmograph resulting in hydrosphygmograph.
Lombroso applied the blood pressure pulse test in actual criminal
suspects. The suspect's fist would be immersed in a water-filled tank
then sealed across the top of the tank by a rubber membrane. The
pulsations of blood in the fist were transferred to the water and the
changes in water level were carried over an air-filled tube which will be
recorded on the revolving smoked drum.
Francis Galton
Francis Galton introduced the word association test in 1879. A group of words
would be presented to a patient with intervals long enough to allow the patient
to utter his first thought on each word. Several irrelevant questions were inserted
in every question relevant to the crime committed. Guilty examinee, when
confronted with a relevant word, will suffer from an inner conflict which may be
manifested either by a delay in reaction, more rapid reaction time, repetition of
relevant word, blocking of response or uncoordinated physical movements.
 
Sticker
Sticker believed that the origin of the galvanic skin phenomenon was under the
influence of the excitement impressions and that the will had no effect upon it.
Sticker made the earliest application of psychogalvanometer to forensic
problems.
Sir James Mackenzie
 
Sir James Mackenzie, an English clinician and cardiologist, constructed the
clinical polygraph in 1892, an instrument once used in medical
examinations with the capability to simultaneously record undulated line
tracings of the vascular pulses (radial, venous and arterial), by way of a
stylus onto a revolving drum of smoked paper.
 
In 1906, Sir James Mackenzie refined his clinical polygraph of 1892 when he
devised the clinical ink polygraph with the help of Lancashire watchmaker,
Sebastian Shaw. This instrument used a clockwork mechanism for the
paper-rolling and time-marker movements and it produced ink recordings of
physiological functions that were easier to acquire and to interpret.
Veragut
He is said to be the first person to use the term psychogalvanic reflex. Veraguth was the
first scientist to use the word association test with galvanometer. In 1907, he described
his observation on galvanic phenomena and emotions that there was an ascending
galvanometer curve during the presentation of relevant stimuli versus the rest of the
curve on non-crucial stimuli.
 
Vittorio Benussi
In March 1913, Vittorio Benussi presented a paper before the second meeting of the
Italian Society for Psychology in Rome. In his paper, he described how he recorded the
subject's breathing pattern using a Marey Pneumograph, noting the changes in
inspiration-expiration ratio during deception. In addition to respiration, he also
included the recording of heart rate and blood pressure curve in detection of deception
and probably the first person to record more than one physiological response.
Dr. William M. Marston
 
Marston was credited as the creator of the systolic blood pressure
used. In 1915, he employed it in an attempt to detect deception during
questioning, using a standard blood pressure cuff and stethoscope. It
required repeated inflation of the pressure cuff to obtain readings at
intervals during examination, which became one component of the
modern polygraph. This was called discontinuous technique. Marston's
wife - Elizabeth Holloway Marston, was also involved in the
development of the systolic blood-pressure test. According to
Marston's son, it was his mother Elizabeth who suggested to him that
when she got mad or excited, her blood pressure seemed to climb.
 
Harold Burt
In 1918, Burtt suggested that the changes in respiration were an indication of deception.
He was able to determine that the changes in respiration were of less value in the
detection of
deception than the changes in blood pressure. The results obtained by Benussi were
partially confirmed by Burtt 
John A. Larson
John Larson's interest was captured by William Marston's studies in detecting deception
using the discontinuous method. Encouraged by Berkeley Police Chief August Vollmer,
he attempted to use a deception test in actual criminal investigations. He examined a
variety of instruments and methodologies that were available at that time. He selected
an Erlanger Sphygmomanometer to produce permanent recordings of blood pressure
using a smoked drum and kymograph. His first apparatus, which he referred to as a
Cardio-Pneumo Psychogram, consisted of a modification of an Erlanger
Sphygmomanometer. The modification was done by Earl Bryant for Dr. Robert Gesell of
the Department of Physiology of the University of California. The first instrument Larson
used in his experiments was borrowed from Dr. Gesell.
In 1921, Earl Bryant made another instrument for John Larson, which was being used at
the Berkeley Police Department. It is believed that this second instrument was a
duplication of the first. This was the instrument that brought fame to Larson's
experiments and that drew the
young Leonarde Keeler into the field of detection of deception. He used a breadboard as
a base for the instrument, and because of that it became known in the industry as the
Breadboard
Polygraph. His instrument differed from Marston'sas it provided continuous readings,
rather than discontinuous readings.He also replaced the blood pressure technique used
by Marston with an
occlusion Sphygmomanometer Plethysmograph that measured relative blood pressure
and blood volume. The instrument was therefore able to continually and simultaneously
record
respiration and cardiovascular changes. Due to thịs John Larson was considered as the
Father of Scientific Lie Detection for being the first person to verify the truth and detect
deception in a more scientific way. He is also considered as the Father of Polygraphy.
Leonarde Keeler
 
Leonarde Keeler, above all others, was the most involved in the history of
modern polygraphy and can be considered as one of its founders. While in
high school, he worked at the Berkeley Police Department under Chief August
Vollmer. He assisted John Larson during his early polygraph work. John
Larson's instrument was Leonard Keeler's first instrument. In 1926, he
developed an improvement of Larson's instrument. Keeler's instrument, like
Larson's instrument, it records changes in blood pressure, pulse rate and
respiration patterns. However, he developed metal bellows (tambours) which
were connected by a mechanical device. The volume changes within the
blood pressure arm cuff and pneumograph tube circling the chest of the
subject were transmitted in heavy walled rubber going to the tambours.
Keeler also designed the kymograph that pulled chart paper at a constant
speed under recording pens from a roll of chart located inside the instrument.
In 1938, Keeler included the Psychogalvanometer (PGR), the third
measuring component of his instrument which was also known as
Galvanograph invented by Italian Physiologist Galvani in 1791. The PGR
measures a person's skin resistance to electricity by transmitting a
constant minute electrical current through the skin of the selected
fingertips.
 
Keeler also developed the relevant -irrelevant technique. This
technique consisted of relevant or crime questions which were
interspersed with irrelevant questions of a neutral nature. Today,
Leonarde Keeler is known as the Father of Modern Polygraphy.
Ruckmick
In 1936, the term psychogalvanic reflex used by
Veraguth was repudiated by Ruckmick and proposed the term electrodermal
response. However, Veraguth believed that the electrodermal phenomena was
attributable not to vascular
changes in the skin but to the activity of the sweat glands.
 
John E. Reid
Reid was an attorney, polygraph examiner and former member of the Chicago
Police Scientific Crime Detection Laboratory and Director of John E. Reid and
Associates. In 1950, he developed the control question which consisted of a known
lie and incorporated it into the relevant-irrelevant technique. In addition to the
recording of breathing, GSR and cardio, he developed a means of recording arm
and leg movements. Reid also developed the guilt -complex test to be administered
to overly responsive examinees.
Cleve Backster
 
Backster, a polygraph expert born in 1924, developed the so-called
Backster Zone Comparison Technique in 1960. He incorporated in the
said technique the relevant and irrelevant questions, Reid's control
question and symptomatic question (which he first introduced) in order
to identify the outside issue that might interfere with the test. Backster
developed the psychological set theory and the anticlimax dampening
concept. He also developed and introduced the quantification system
of chart analysis which permits the examiner to score the charts
numerically according to standard rules.
 
Richard O. Arther
In 1965, Richard O. Arther, Chief Associate of John E. Reid and Associates from September
1951 to August 1953, introduced the Arther Il polygraph instrument which contains a
stimulus marker. The instrument is capable of recording the beginning and ending of a
question and the moment the examinee answered.
 
American Polygraph Association
In 1966, the American Polygraph Association (APA) was established. At present it consists
of over 2500 members dedicated to providing a valid and reliable means to verify the
truth and establish the highest standards of moral, ethical, and professional conduct in
the polygraph field.
The American Polygraph Association continues to be the leading polygraph professional
association, establishing standards of ethical practices, techniques, instrumentation,
research, and advanced training and continuing educational programs.
University of Utah Research
 
On August 30, 1976, a research project was launched under the direction of
David C. Raskin, Ph.D., a professor of psychology at the University of Utah,
John A. Podlesny, Ph.D.,
an adjunct professor at the University of Utah, and Gordon H. Barland, Ph.D., a
polygraphist in private practice. This project was funded by a grant from the
University of Utah Research Committee, the Biochemical Sciences and
Research Support Branch of the National Institute of Health, National Institute
of Law Enforcement and Criminal Justice and U.S. Department of Justice. The
result of the project showed the polygraph to be highly accurate with accuracy
rate of ninety (90) percent on examination utilizing control question or guilty
knowledge tests with only ten (10) percent inconclusive. This research also
concluded that numerical scoring of charts produces higher rates of accuracy
and reliability of chart interpretation.
Computer Assisted Polygraph System
During the 1980s, research was conducted on computerized polygraph
at the University of Utah by Drs. John C. Kircher and David C. Raskin. In
1988, they developed the Computer Assisted Polygraph System (CAPS),
which incorporated the first algorithm to be used for evaluating
physiological data collected for diagnostic purposes.
 
Computerized Polygraph Instrument
In 1992, the polygraph made its official entrance into the computer
age. Different polygraph manufacturers have started producing
computerized instruments which has the same physiological data being
recorded with that of the analogue instruments.
PolyScore and Objective Scoring System
 
In 1993, statisticians Dr. Dale E. Olsen and John C. Harris of Johns
Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory in Maryland, completed
a software program called PolyScore. The PolyScore uses a
sophisticated mathematical algorithm to analyze the polygraph data
and to estimate a probability or degree of deception or truthfulness in
a subject. Another scoring program, called Objective Scoring System,
was introduced in 1999. The program also uses a computer
mathematical algorithm. These scoring programs were incorporated
with computerized instruments that make it possible for these
instruments to provide computer interpretation of physiological data
right after the examination.
Department of Energy
In 2003, the U.S. Department of Energy commissioned a review committee of The
National Academy of Sciences to study the scientific evidence of polygraphy. In this
endeavor, the committee sifted through existing evidence in the polygraph research
literature and did not conduct any new laboratory or field research on polygraph
testing for, as they clearly reported, real-world conditions are difficult - if not
impossible - to replicate in a mock-crime setting or a laboratory environment for the
purpose of assessing polygraph effectiveness.
The review committee of The National Academy of Sciences concluded that,
although there may be alternative techniques to polygraph testing, none can
outperform the polygraph, nor do any of these yet show promise of supplanting the
polygraph in the near future.
 
Withstanding more than a century of research development and widespread use,
the polygraph examination remains the most effective means of verifying the truth
and detecting deception.
 CHAPTER 4
PSYCHOPHYSIOLOGY OF LYING
Lying is part of the daily life of mankind, some people lie in order to get
reward while some others in order to avoid punishment. Whatever the
reason may be, it is important to note that when someone tells a lie, there
are considerable psychological and physiological reactions that originate
from our central nervous system.
 
Central Nervous System (CNS)
The central nervous system is composed of the brain and the spinal cord. All
other nerve ways are within the peripheral nervous system which separates
into two:
Somatic Nervous System - is involved with voluntary comparative over
skeletal muscles.
Autonomic Nervous System - involved those involuntary physiological
functions of the body and has considerable psychological impact as well.
Two Divisions of Autonomic Nervous System
 
1. Parasympathetic Nervous System (PNS) - the housekeeping or
braking system. It is responsible for conserving energy and ensuring
necessary bodily functions. It restrains
sympathetic arousal and attempts to maintain homeostatic
(homeostasis) normal.
 
2. Sympathetic Nervous System (SNS) - is our emergency, or action
system. It is a system which causes sudden and dramatic changes.
Homeostasis - is a complex interactive regulatory system by which the body
strives to maintain a state of internal equilibrium.
 
When the sympathetic nervous system is activated. It immediately prepares
the body for fight or flight by causing the adrenal glands to secrete
hormones known as epinephrine and norepinephrine and the blood will be
distributed to those areas of the body where it is most needed to meet the
emergency.
 
Fight, flight, freeze - are the three stereotypic behavioral responses to
threat, sometimes simply called F3. The physiological responses
concomitant to these behaviors are the same, namely mobilizing bodily
resources for an expenditure of energy, and narrowing attention and focus
to the features of the threat.
Epinephrine - is the hormonal stimulator of the sympathetic nervous
system. It acts to constrict peripheral blood flow, raise blood pressure,
increase cardiac activity, promote metabolic activity through the
release of glucose, and inhibit digestive processes. It is considered a
psychogenic hormone because it alters psychological processes when
released in large quantities, such as when under stress. It is produced in
the adrenal medulla, located immediately above each kidney. In British,
it is called adrenaline.
 
Norepinephrine - is a hormone secreted by the adrenal gland. It works
alongside epinephrine/adrenaline to give the body sudden energy in
times of stress, known as the “fight or flight" response. It is called
noradrenaline in British.
The chemical norepinephrine causes the arterioles in certain parts of the
body to constrict, thereby preventing blood from entering areas where it is
less needed. Constriction of arterioles in other parts of the body also takes
place when the sympathetic nervous system activates the secretion of
norepinephrine. This affects the skin capillaries which produce pallor in the
face often found in people experiencing severe fright, as well as coldness
or clamminess of the hands and fingers due to the reduction in the volume
of blood in those extremities. In such instances, the heart pumps harder
and faster, increasing blood pressure, blood volume and pulse rate, thus,
furnishing more oxygen to those areas of the body where it is vitally
needed, such as the brain, when increased mental activity is demanded.
The salivary glands in the mouth secrete different, thicker saliva that has
less volume, thereby causing dryness of the mouth. Another is the dilation
of the iris of the eyes which increases our vision and awareness of the
surroundings.
The activation of the SNS also affects covert symptoms such as tensing of
the involuntary muscles that in addition to causing a constriction of the
cardiovascular system, causes a tightening of the involuntary muscles in
the stomach. Thus, it inhibits the diaphragm-intercostal muscular
complex, which causes a less than enlargement of the chest. In those few
seconds, there is less than average air intake at a time when the brain,
which consumes more than seventy-five percent of the total oxygen
intake of the body, needs more than average amount of oxygen because
of the increased mental activity. Therefore, stimulation of the lungs by the
brain will also cause some breathing changes.
 
The PNS, on the other hand, maintains the homeostasis of the body
necessary for the normal functioning. Therefore, whenever the SNS
activates, the PNS follows to reestablish the chemical balance of the body.
During the test, the receptor is the ear of the subject which receives the
stimulus from the examiner, the stimulus is transmitted from the car via sensory
neurons into the brain where the hypothalamus analyzes, evaluates, and
resolves that particular question. It makes a decision for the subject whether it is
a threatening or not threatening situation.
 
Hypothalamus - is a series of groups of nerve cells of the brain that control the
entire endocrine-hormonal system
 
If threatening, the hypothalamus immediately activates the sympathetic nervous
system that causes physiological changes and has psychological impact as well.
These physiological reactions such as changes in breathing pattern, skin
response and cardiovascular activity are recorded by the instrument for
interpretation. Polygraph testing uses questions like relevant and comparison
questions for numerical comparison and interpretation.
Under the psychological set theory postulated by Cleve Backster,
examinees are expected to attend more to the category of question
that presents the greater threat to their interests, either the relevant or
comparison questions. Subjects who are lying on the relevant issues
consider those questions more threatening than the others, which, in
turn, draw more attention to the relevant questions, and more
physiological arousal. Similarly, innocent subjects find the comparison
questions more disconcerting, and the greater attention paid to them
generates the larger arousals.
 
This shows that every reaction that the subject inhibits while
undergoing the polygraph examination, is being controlled by the
central nervous system.
 CHAPTER 5
TRUTH AND LIE
Truth defined
The deliberate, complete and objective communication - whether verbal,
written or gesture, of the recollection of a person, place, thing and/or
event which the communication believes to exist, have existed or
occurred.
 
Lie defined
The deliberate communication to another, either verbally, written or by
gesture, of something that the communicator knows or suspects to be
not true.
 
It is the omission of information, with deliberate intent to deceive and
mislead someone who requests the truth.
Kinds of Liar
Pathological Liar - a liar who cannot distinguish between right and wrong.
Panic Liar - a person who lies to avoid the consequences of certain actions.
Occupational Liar - is a practical liar and usually lies when there is a higher
pay off than telling the truth.
Ethnological Liar - person who is trained not to be squealer. This person
loves to be interrogated in such a way that he will never reveal the truth.
Tournament Liar- a person who loves to lie and is excited by the challenge of
not being detected.
Psychopathic Liar- is considered as the most difficult type of liar to deal with
because such is a good actor. He has no regret for his dishonest actions and
no manifestations of guilt.
Black Liar - a person who always pretends.
Variations of Lie
 
Derail - change the subject of discussion in order to avoid the truth.
(For example, one might feign being offended in order to stop a
conversation about one's questionable actions.)
Confuse - quibble or confuse the issue, or deliberately use ambiguity in
order to deceive or mislead.
Misinform - invent or perpetrate a false story with the intent to deceive
or mislead.
Types of Lie
 
• Big Lie - a lie which attempts to trick the victim into believing something major which
will likely be construed by the victim's common sense or by some information that he
already possessed.
• Bluffed Lie - a lie that pretends to have a capability or intention which one does not
actually possess. Bluffing is an act of deception that is rarely seen as immoral when
taken in the context of a game (i.e., deception consented to in advance by the
players).
• Emergency Lie - a strategic lie told when the truth may not be told because harm to a
third party would result.
• Lie of Exaggeration - a lie often used to exaggerate things in order to obtain or get
some advantage. Exaggeration occurs when the most fundamental aspects of
statement are true but only to a certain degree. It is also described as "stretching the
truth" or making something appear more powerful, meaningful or real than it actually
is.
• Lie of Fabrication - is something made up or a misrepresentation of a truth. It
is often used by the subject in an interview.
• Lie of Omission - a lie used by omitting an important fact, deliberately leaving
another person with a misconception.
• Misleading / Dissembling Lie - it is one where there is no outright lie but still
retains the purpose of getting someone to believe in an untruth. Dissembling
likewise describes the presentation of facts in a way that is literally true but
intentionally misleading.
• Noble Lies - one that would normally discord if uncovered but offers some
benefit to the liar and assists in an orderly society therefore potentially
beneficial to others.
• Puffery Lie - is an exaggerated claim typically found in advertising and publicity
announcements. For example, the highest quality at the lowest price." Such a
statement is unlikely to be true but cannot be proven false and so do not
violate trade laws.
• Lie of Compliment or False Reassurance - a lie intended to please
others. For example, "that looks good to you" or "everything is going to
be alright."
• White Lie -a lie that would cause only relatively minor discord if it were
uncovered and typically offers some benefit to the hearer. It is often
used to maintain harmony of friendship, in the home or in the office.
• Red Lie - a lie used to destroy the ideologies by means of propaganda
which is common in communist countries.
• Malicious Lie - a lie usually used to mislead or a dishonesty intended to
obstruct justice.

 
Verbal Signs of Deception
 
The determination of deception through the words uttered by the
subject is somehow difficult because people can easily manipulate or
control their verbal expressions. Accordingly, the least dependable
signs of lying are the ones which a person has the most control, such as
words, because a person can rehearse their lies.
• Speech Patterns
 
When a person is lying one might notice a higher pitch in tone,
stuttering, clearing the throat and frequent pauses. The person might
use filler words such as "uh, er, oh" and "um" during moments of
hesitation as lies are put together. Liars also will cut out contractions,
using "was not" instead of "wasn't" or "did not" rather than "didn't." It
is also typical for a person to get tongue-tied and lose his thoughts in
mid-sentence.
• Repeating Questions
 
As lies are formulated, the person needs time to think. Instead of giving
a straight answer, they usually repeat the question, or there may be a
slight pause between answers. The person might also ask to repeat the
question just asked, even though he heard it the first time. These are
tactics that liars used to buy time before responding.
 
• Strong Denial
 
Defensive behavior, denial and trying to make the other person feel
guilty might also be used as the liar tries to create empathy. One might
hear things like, "I would never lie" as the person tries to convince the
interviewer that he is innocent. Most people caught in the act of lying
will flat out deny it and even become angry. Everyone tells lies
sometimes, so anyone who says they "never lie" is probably lying.
 
• Changing the Subject or Story
 
A swift subject change is another of the verbal signs of lying. The
person might also tell a story that lacks details. lf the story starts to
change or becomes different at different times, this is a strong
indication of lying. Liars will also contradict themselves, making
statements that do not completely make sense. If suspicion occurs,
press on asking questions and look for details that do not fit together.
 
• Unwillingness to Cooperate

Liars do not want to be found out and will be significantly more

uncooperative than someone who is telling the truth. As they are
pushed to speak, there are more opportunities to slip up, which might
result in frustration or anger. However, in some accusations, anger is
just a common response. There are some subjects who are overly polite
in order to mislead the interviewer that they are telling the truth.
Non-verbal Signs of Deception
 
The nonverbal signs encompass body movements or gestures of persons
while being asked a series of questions. Body gestures or signals are
difficult to control and considered the most reliable clues to lying.
 
Ray Birdwhistell, an anthropologist, pioneered the original study of nen
verbal communication. In face to face conversation, the verbal
component is less than 35% and non verbal component is more than
65%. Aside from that, a person can make and recognize around 250,000
facial expressions. However, not all of these are effective signs of
deception. There are only eight common body gestures associated with
lying.
• Mouth Cover
A lying person tends to cover his mouth with several fingers when lying.
The human brain causes this and the person does this subconsciously to
hide the words just being said.
 
• Nose Touch
lf the person speaking is not suffering from a cold or fever and keeps
touching his nose while talking, he is lying. It has a scientific explanation
that once a person tells a lie, a chemical named catecholamine is released
and causes the tissues inside the nose to swell due to the mental pressure.
The secretion of chemicals is not visible but the swelling creates an itching
that urges the person to touch the nose. The same feeling also happens
during anxiety or annoyance. Generally, it can just be a very quick one or at
a few times.
• Itchy Nose
Some people while telling a lie get busy with scratching their nose.
Usually, they do it to disguise their mouth cover or nose touch gesture.
 
• Eye Rub
 
This is another lying gesture. It is the brain's attempt to help a liar to
avoid the face to face look during the utterance of lying words. Men do
this gesture more and women show this gesture comparatively less.
 
• Ear Grab
People show this gesture (touching the ear lobe) once they suffer from
anxiety. A good number of liars show this gesture to avoid anxiety.
 
• Neck Scratch
Some people start scratching their neck with their index finger of
writing hand while lying, especially once the verbal language
contradicts with fact.
 
• Collar Pull
Lies cause a tingling sensation in neck tissues and a liar feels an urge to
rub that place. This is why some people pull their collar while lying. At
the same time, many liars start sweating in their neck region.
 
• Fingers in the Mouth
This is an unconscious gesture of liars when lying. By showing this
gesture, a liar wants to send a reassuring signal of guarantee about his
false statement.
Different Lie Detection Techniques
• Brain Waves
Brain waves have been used in neurophysiology for decades to uncover
processes in the brain. One type of brain waves called Event-Related
Potentials (ERPs) is of potential interest in lie detection. ERPs are
recorded by sensors placed on the scalp and can reveal the timing and
general location of electrical activity in the brain elicited by the
presentation of sounds, words, text and pictures. It has been shown
that the ERPs can reveal whether an individual has guilty knowledge of
crime related information when it is placed in a list of other information
that is unrelated to the crime.
• Brain Imagery
 
A leading candidate for technology for lie detection is Functional
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI). An fMRI device is a powerful
magnet and sophisticated software that can track the brain's use of
blood over time. It is assumed that more blood is used in particular
regions of the brain when they are active than when they are inactive.
The hypothesis for lie detection is that the sequence of the brain
activations will be different between lying and truth telling. Preliminary
research supports this hypothesis while laboratory evidence offers
optimism for the use of fMRI in lie detection.
• Eye Tracking
 
The pattern of a person's eye movement over an image can reveal whether
the person has seen the image before. This is especially true for photos of
faces, but has also been shown for pictures of scenes. Movement of the
eyes can be monitored by illuminating them with an eye-safe infrared light
which creates a reflection that can be detected by a special camera. A
software triangulates the reflection to calculate where the eyes are focused
on an image, and tracks the focal point as the eyes move. Specially designed
algorithms use the eye movement information to determine whether the
image is familiar or unfamiliar. Research has found accuracy above 85% for
recognition of familiar faces with lower accuracy for other types of stimuli.
While the technology is non-contact, the rigorous testing protocol limits its
usefulness in a covert capacity. This technology is approaching maturity and
may be available to law enforcement agencies in the near term.
• Facial Analysis
 
Research over the last two decades has suggested that short duration
facial expressions can reveal concealed emotions, and have
implications for the detection of lies. Called micro-expressions, they
correspond with emotions that the individual is attempting to mask. A
series of small studies point to an accuracy above 80% for detection of
deception. Interpretation of facial expressions has typically relied on a
painstaking frame-by-frame analysis of video recordings by a specially
trained expert, however there are laboratories working on automation
of the analysis. Once automated, it may become effective means of
detecting deception during free-flowing conversation.
• Narco-Interrogation
 
Interrogation drugs have a mixed history in law enforcement, and they
have been out of favor for over 50 years. Most of the success of so-
called "truth serums" has been in fictional spy novels, and they have
been generally dismissed by government and law enforcement as
ineffective. Public discussion of psychopharmaceuticals appears
primarily when no other methods are available, such as when trying to
extract critical information from terrorists. Over the years research has
been conducted on a variety of substances, including cocaine,
mescaline, cannabis, sodium pentothal, and ether in an endeavor to
find a magic drug that loosens the tongue without deactivating the
conscious brain. To date, nothing has been found to be reliable.
• Reaction Time
 
As early as the first part of the 20th century, practitioners of the new
science of psychology had been investigating reaction time for the
detection of deception. Among them was Freud's student Carl Jung. An
early theory was that individual harbored "complexes" associated with
certain words, and that those complexes interfered with the person's
ability to respond to stimuli that would prompt those words. More
recent evidence indicates that the act of lying involves more cognitive
processes than truth telling, and that the involvement of these
additional processes necessarily slows the response time. As a rule, the
act of deception causes responses to be delayed.
However, response time may be sped up in certain cases, such as when
the lie has been practiced. Reaction time measures may not be
sufficiently reliable to be used alone, but when added to other
methods they can increase the overall accuracy for detecting lies.
• Statement Content Analysis
 
Statement Content Analysis is an approach to lie detection that does
not use a device or technology. This method relies upon the analysis of
written text for pattern of word choices, use of pronouns and verb
tenses, sequence of the narration, and amount of time covered in the
individual passages. Statement content analysis is often used by police
in the initial stages of an investigation. Much like gesture analysis,
statement content analysis must pay particular attention to customers
to derive meaningful inferences. Research on statement content
analysis has been limited, but it indicates that it may be of value in
certain cases. An accuracy estimate has not been established.
• Voice Stress Analysis
There are several companies now making voice based lie detectors. Because
voice stress analysis is a non-contact technology, and can be used on both live
and recorded voice samples, many have considered it a boon to law
enforcement. Hundreds of police departments have purchased the devices since
its introduction in the 1970s, making them second only to the polygraph in
popularity among police agencies. The devices themselves are relatively
inexpensive, easy to operate, and require as little as a week of formal training.
Despite their apparent usefulness, none of the dozens of published scientific
studies have found this approach to a lie detection to have any validity. The US
National Academy of Sciences recently debunked the device, reporting that the
consensus of 30 years of research shows that they cannot detect truthfulness or
deception at rates greater than chance. Many police departments still use the
device, however, because they have proven to be powerful interrogation tools.
Confessions are easier to extract with the device, and most users are either
uninformed or not concerned about the deficiency in accuracy.
• Thermal Imaging
 
Recent advances in camera and computer technology have led to the
development of a method that uses body heat to detect deception.
Special thermal cameras can now capture subtle changes in
temperature of the person's face, usually around the eyes, that are
associated with physiological arousal. When these areas become
warmer, they signal that the person has reacted to the picture, word, or
question that was presented to him or her. These changes may also be
triggered during deception, making thermal imaging an exciting new
avenue for lie detection. One of the main advantages of thermal
imaging is that it is non-contact, so it does not entail the placing of
sensors on the body as with the polygraph.
.This opens the potential for rapid screening applications, such as at
airports. The chief disadvantage of thermal imaging is that the cameras
and associated instrumentation are very expensive. Also, the changes
that occur during deception are very fast and very small, so that
algorithms are necessary to detect the patterns that appear during
lying. These algorithms have not yet been validated. These issues will
be resolved in time, and thermal imaging will likely be used in many
settings in the future for assessing individuals for deception.
• Gesture Analysis
The movement of the hands, arms, legs, and head can communicate
underlying emotions and attitudes, such as excitement, fear, trust,
rejection and acceptance. For example, folded arms are often an indication
of rejection, While open gestures generally signal acceptance. Even an
individual’s use of interpersonal space can indicate aggression, suspicion,
or familiarity. Gestures are culture, context and personality dependent,
and consequently there are no universal indicators that are reliable across
all settings. Moreover no single gesture should be considered strong
evidence of an emotion. Experts assess gestures by clusters, weighing their
collective meaning according to the context in which they appear.
Research on gesture analysis shows a weak but positive effect in detecting
deception, suggesting that gestures may help augment other information
for deception detection but should not be used alone for this purpose.
• Use of Alcoholic Beverages
 
This method of detecting deception has been found effective by some
investigators in obtaining facts from people who are-somehow
reluctant in giving information. The law enforcer will either be the one
to ask for a drink or if not somebody whom he thinks would be credible
enough to do the same. Hard liquor (35% 45%) is the one usually
preferred because of its high volume of alcohol content although beer
and other soft liquor may also be used. Once the person starts to
become talkative or about to lose his inhabitation, questions will then
be asked of him and normally, the tendency is for the subject to just
reply without minding the possible implications of what he is telling.
• Word Association Test
 
In this method, a group of words, objects or photographs will be
presented and the principle of time pressure is used. This was first
devised by F. Galton in 1870 and later was modified and improved by
others such as Munsterberg, Orosland, Luria and Jung. In Galton's
technique, there are two main criteria for detecting indications of
deception. These are: (1) Incriminating answer words, and (2) Delayed
answer.
• Use of Hypnotism
 
Among the scientific methods of detecting deception, this is one of the
most unreliable means considering that the subject in this test will be
under the control of the hypnotist. The subject in this test will be
completely deprived of his free will to think and speak freely thus, all
information obtained is completely inadmissible as evidence in court.
 
• Polygraphy
 
The polygraph examination, or much commonly known as lie detector test,
is just one of the lie detection techniques available today. In this process,
the examiner focuses on the formulation of the questions and on observing
the responses and reactions of the subject to every question that will be
propounded to him. The instrument, on the other hand, will be the one
responsible to detect and record changes in physiological responses of the
subject with focus on cardiovascular activity, skin resistance and respiration.
This will be discussed further in the proceeding chapters.