BS302

Module II
Stages and Models of Stress
 Stages of Stress
 The Physiology of Stress
 Stimulus-Oriented Approach
 Response-Oriented Approach
 Interactional Model
 The Transactional Model
 Person – Environment Fit Model of Stress
 Stages of Stress

• Hans Selye (1956) defined stress as “the non- specific

result of any demand upon the body, be the effect mental
or somatic. He developed a theory about how stress
produces illness and gave the concept of General
Adaptation Syndrome (GAS).
• Selye argued that when an organism confronts a stressor,
it mobilizes itself for action. The response itself is
nonspecific with respect to the stressors; that is regardless
of the causes of the threat, the individual will respond with
the same physiological pattern of reactions. Over time,
with repeated or prolonged exposure to stress, there will
be wear and tear on the system.
[Ref. Taylor, 2015: Health Psychology, 9th Edn.]
 Stages Of Stress –
Selye’s GAS Model

Phase 1 – The Alarm Phase

Phase 2 – The Resistance Phase

Phase 3 – The Exhaustion Phase

 Stages Of Stress – Selye’s GAS Model
Phase 1: Alarm Phase
• The Alarm Phase refers to our immediate stress response when we perceive a situation that
is a potential threat to us. You’ve probably already heard of this phase as the “fight-or-flight
response.”
• In this phase our brain responds to the “alarm” with hundreds of responses. One of these is
to release stress hormones such as adrenalin and cortisol into our bloodstream to give it a
boost in order to do whatever must be done to survive, such as escape from a predator.
• These hormones cause the body to become highly stimulated. The heart beats harder, the
lungs breathe faster, your muscles may tense – you’re ready to fight or to run. The vision
gets sharper as it focuses on the potential threat. The liver releases extra glucose for energy,
and blood pressure goes up. The digestive, immune and reproductive systems go on hold
temporarily so all that energy can be directed toward responding to the threat.
• This is all because our nervous system was designed to help increase the chances of
surviving a physical threat to safety.
 Stages Of Stress – Selye’s GAS Model
Phase 1: Alarm Phase

• PHYSICAL SYMPTOMS OF PHASE 1 STRESS: When you are alarmed by a request

from your boss, a comment by a colleague, or by the overload of tasks you need to
get through before the end of the day, the body immediately goes into the first
phase of stress.
• Physically, the stress response may express itself in any or all of these ways:
• •    A faster heart rate or “pounding heart”
•    Faster breathing
•    Blood pressure elevates
•    Trembling
•    Muscle tension, particularly in the chest, neck or shoulders
•    Churning stomach, nausea or vomiting
•    Stomach aches /intestinal problems viz., diarrhea /constipation
•    Dry mouth
Stages Of Stress – Selye’s GAS Model
Phase 1: Alarm Phase

• MENTAL SYMPTOMS OF PHASE 1 STRESS

• When the adrenalin is released through our body, it also causes a shift in the
area of the brain that has control.
• The logical, rational part of the brain becomes impaired, and we revert to
instinctive behaviours because they’re quicker and more like reflexes.
• That’s why it’s extremely difficult to think calmly and rationally when you’re
having a stress response.
• Examples:
•    Hard to think clearly
•    Hard to concentrate
•    Mind races very fast
Stages Of Stress – Selye’s GAS Model
Phase 1: Alarm Phase

• EMOTIONAL SYMPTOMS OF PHASE 1 STRESS

• In addition to the changes to our mental function, our emotional state
changes too.
• The stress hormones cause a shift from the logical rational part of the brain,
over to the limbic system, the area responsible for instincts and emotions.
• That’s why it’s easy to become highly emotional and why it’s so easy to spit
out words you later regret.
• Examples:
•    Cry easily
•    Get angry easily
•    Become anxious
Stages Of Stress – Selye’s GAS Model
Phase 1: Alarm Phase

• SPIRITUAL SYMPTOMS OF PHASE 1 STRESS

• Spirituality can take on many different forms – it’s not necessarily about religion,
though it can take that form. It may help connect you to a higher power, the
world, a small community, music, art, or nature. When a spiritual person
encounters stress, research shows that they are often able to call upon their
beliefs to help them to handle the stress and thereby reduce its symptoms.
• Stress can still take a toll in a spiritual sense.
• Examples:
•    Focused on the present, the immediate situation, rather than long term
•    Irrational or negative thinking
•    Going into ‘survival mode’.
Stages Of Stress – Selye’s GAS Model
Phase 1: Alarm Phase

• BEHAVIOUR SYMPTOMS OF PHASE 1 STRESS

The fight or flight response also causes changes in our behaviour due to the
effects of the stress hormones and subsequent change in brain function.
Some people follow the “fight” instinct, others prefer the flight option and
walk away from the situation take time out or withdraw into themselves.
Others can become frozen, paralysed by the stress hormones and unable to
think quickly or clearly enough to react.
• Examples:
•    Fight or become aggressive
•    Run away
•    Freeze
Stages Of Stress – Selye’s GAS Model
Phase 2: Resistance Phase
• If the situation that alarmed us does not disappear, our body goes into Phase 2:
Resistance. During Phase 2, the body shifts the mix of stress hormones over from
being mostly the quick acting adrenalin over to the longer lasting cortisol. It also
releases other hormones, particularly corticosteroids. Because of this, blood sugar
and blood pressure levels rise. This is done to help us maintain energy levels (as if
we’re still fighting off that dragon) and to help us adapt physically to the ongoing
tension.
• Phase 2 is the period of time when we recognise and begin to interpret the stressful
situation. We try to adapt to it or cope with it.
• Our response is largely dictated by our core beliefs, attitudes and values. As you can
imagine, these directly affect the choices we make. If we consider the situation a
threat, demand, or a disaster, we may compromise our own ability to cope.
• If a person remains in Phase 2 for a prolonged period of time, or continually
bounces from Phase 1 to Phase 2, they will begin to suffer irritability and fatigue. It
is too difficult for the body to sustain a highly stimulated state over time.
 Stages Of Stress – Selye’s GAS Model
Phase 2: Resistance Phase

• PHYSICAL SYMPTOMS OF PHASE 2 STRESS

• Recognising the physical symptoms is usually simple because they’re the things we notice first. However,
we may tend to only notice them as an isolated example – “I’m having a lot of headaches” without
stopping to realise they are caused by stress.
• Examples:
•    Fatigue
•    Tooth grinding
•    Low blood sugar (more hunger) or higher blood sugar
•    A need for greater sleep
•    Insomnia
•    Headaches
•    Weight gain or weight loss
•    More colds or flu than usual
•    Reproductive problems
•    Hormonal problems
•    Food cravings
•    Low energy, fatigue
 Stages Of Stress – Selye’s GAS Model
Phase 2: Resistance Phase

• MENTAL SYMPTOMS OF PHASE 2 STRESS

• Our mental abilities are affected by the Phase 2 stress response too.
• People may describe you as forgetful or preoccupied. You agree with
them, as you realise your productivity is down, you can’t
concentrate, and your thoughts seem disorganised or scattered.
• Examples:
•    Worry
•    Inability to concentrate
•    Forgetfulness/poor memory
•    Jump to conclusions quicker
 Stages Of Stress – Selye’s GAS Model
Phase 2: Resistance Phase
• EMOTIONAL SYMPTOMS OF PHASE 2 STRESS
• In addition to the physical symptoms, you may find that you have emotional symptoms
of stress. You may become angry, critical or hostile. You may feel depressed or
withdrawn, no longer wishing to interact with your friends. You may have a feeling of
unreality or anxiety. You might simply be restless, unable to sit still. You may suddenly
find yourself in an angry outburst or bursting into tears — when it isn’t normal for you.
• At night, you may find yourself exhausted, but unable to sleep. If you do finally fall
asleep, you might have nightmares as your subconscious tries to make sense of what is
happening in your life — making you unable to get back to sleep. It can become a
vicious cycle.
• Examples:
•   Nervous, anxious or irritable
•    Bad moods, apathy, loss of interest in work or personal life
•    Begin to experience depression
•    Impatience
•    Feel not in control
•    Experiencing More negative emotions than positive ones
•    Anger, short tempered
 Stages Of Stress – Selye’s GAS Model
Phase 2: Resistance Phase
• BEHAVIOURAL SYMPTOMS OF PHASE 2 STRESS
• Your friends and family may notice the behavioral signs of stress you exhibit. Although
you feel headaches and clenched fists, they notice your behavior changes. They may
comment on your increased smoking, alcohol use, or drug use. They may chide you for
overeating or undereating. They will also take note of your carelessness with possessions
or your propensity to have accidents.
• Often people who are experiencing stress find a great need to control circumstances
around them. A formerly easy-going boss becomes a driving taskmaster; a parent makes
demands that no child could ever meet. Recognise these as what they are – a sign of
stress in the person.
• Others go the other way, giving up control of things they should be in charge of. A mother
may stay in bed all day, rather than tending to her little ones. An employee’s inbox
continues to pile up, with no notable productivity happening, even though she appears to
be busy at her desk every day.
• Other people may seem tense, and maybe even a bit frozen in time. They seem unable to
respond to anything, yet if you were to question them, under the surface they show
extreme nervousness or agitation.
 Stages Of Stress – Selye’s GAS Model
Phase 2: Resistance Phase

Examples:
• Hostility and increasingly aggressive behaviours, like when driving or disciplining your children.
• More task focused than people focused, to avoid interacting with people
• Putting your needs ahead of others
• Self-medicating through the use of drugs, alcohol, food, sex, escapism – anything that helps you
feel better for a while.
• Compulsiveness — repeated hand washing, shuffling papers over and over, risk taking, or even
shoplifting.
• If the people around you describe you as jumping to illogical conclusions, selfish, cold, or
distant, it’s time to take positive action!
• If we don’t address stress when it is this second phase, it can develop into much more serious
problems that are harder and longer to recover from.
• Chronic stress can lead to a decline in physical health and a range of stress-related conditions
such as hypertension, stroke, obesity, sleep problems, skin conditions, depression, heart attack,
diabetes, chronic fatigue, and fibromyalgia.
 Stages Of Stress – Selye’s GAS Model
Phase 3: Exhaustion Phase
• If we stay in Phase 2 for a long time, the glands that produce the stress hormones become exhausted, as do
the organs that have either been stimulated or shut down by the hormones. This is Phase 3 of stress – the
phase of Exhaustion.
• In this third stage of stress, we feel depleted. The chronic production of stress hormones has worn out our
physiological functioning, causing deep physical exhaustion, and fatigue even when not doing very much.
There can also be mental and emotional effects such as depression. The body has depleted its energy, as
well as its ability to combat disease. The body is both mentally and physically on the verge of collapse.
• Long term chronic stress weakens our body, due to the stress hormones that circulate constantly through
it. Our physiological systems aren’t made to work on overdrive for long periods. They’ll eventually start to
lose efficiency, break-down, or even collapse and stop working. Chronic stress can cause serious illnesses,
as well as burnout:
• Chronic fatigue
•    Adrenal exhaustion
•    Depression
•    Behavioural problems
•    Relationship issues
 Stages Of Stress – Selye’s GAS Model
Phase 3: Exhaustion Phase
PHYSICAL SYMPTOMS OF PHASE 3 STRESS
•Stress exhaustion is the stage we reach after prolonged high-stress situations. You may think of it as chronic stress. Stress
exhaustion is both mental and physical, causing you to feel frustrated and helpless by the situation that is bringing on the
stress. If not addressed, stress exhaustion can be debilitating, causing long-term health problems.
•Other factors often come into play during Phase 3. For example, you might not have any energy because you don’t eat or
exercise during the stress response. The lack of energy could also be from adrenal exhaustion, a circumstance in which the
adrenal glands become worn out from constantly pumping stress hormones into the body. When adrenal exhaustion occurs,
blood sugar levels drop. This causes low energy levels, fatigue and physical exhaustion.
•Examples:
•    Physical exhaustion; no energy.
•    Stress hormones in your system shut down non-essential functions like the digestive, immune, and the reproductive
systems.
•    Problems with digestion – bloating, constipation, irritable bowel disorder,
•    Get sick easily
•    Problems with reproduction
•    Suppressed thyroid function
•    Blood sugar spirals out of control
•    Muscle and bone density decrease
•    Increased abdominal fat
•    Cortisol interferes with serotonin activity, leading to more depression and sleep problems
•    Chronic elevated heart rate; can cause more severe heart problems
 Stages Of Stress – Selye’s GAS Model
Phase 3: Exhaustion Phase
• MENTAL SYMPTOMS OF PHASE 3 STRESS
• Mental exhaustion affects the body as well as the mind. It is brought on by excessive, long-term stress:
working long hours in hectic job settings, for example, or a constantly stressful personal life. The burnout
causes you to feel empty inside. Eventually, it affects every relationship as well as job performance. It is very
important, if you are feeling this way, to realize there is a problem so that you are able to seek out a solution.
• Examples
•    Unable to concentrate
•    Poor memory
•    A “why bother” attitude
•    Worst of all, you become your own greatest enemy, making self-deprecating remarks that reflect the
truth: you are losing confidence in your own abilities.
• Often, those who are suffering from long-term stress and burnout will begin to lose self-esteem. They feel
defeated, even when they are able to complete the task at hand. Because of this feeling, they become stuck
in a cycle of exhaustion-hopelessness-exhaustion.
• The person may begin to procrastinate, even with simple responsibilities. Their motivation to work through a
job to completion is gone, so it takes them a long time to complete any task. They may even begin to self-
medicate, using alcohol, drugs or food for overindulgence.
 Stages Of Stress – Selye’s GAS Model
Phase 3: Exhaustion Phase
• EMOTIONAL SYMPTOMS OF PHASE 3 STRESS
It Is Difficult To Separate The Mental Symptoms From The
Emotional. People Who Are Suffering From Burnout Can Lose
The Ability To Care About Their Work Or Family. They May
Withdraw From Activities That Were Formerly Fun And
Interesting. Hobbies That Once Seemed To Be The Centre Of
Life Are Abandoned. The Person Simply Wants Out–of
Everything.
• Examples:
•    Feeling Like You Have Nothing To Give.
•    Not Caring About Anything Anymore
•    Not Engaging In Things You Do Care About
•    Feeling Like Whatever You Do Is Ineffective.
•    Distancing Yourself From People
 Stages Of Stress – Selye’s GAS Model
Phase 3: Exhaustion Phase
• SPIRITUAL SYMPTOMS OF PHASE 3 STRESS
In this phase, the spiritual feeling can be of
emptiness, restlessness, dissatisfaction or depression.
• Examples:
•    No sense of peace
•    Low passion/enthusiasm for things
•    Feel disconnected
•    Low motivation
 Stages Of Stress – Selye’s GAS Model
Phase 3: Exhaustion Phase
• BEHAVIOURAL SYMPTOMS OF PHASE 3 STRESS
As you probably know from personal experience, when workers begin to feel
overwhelmed, they become less productive. That’s because they lose
confidence that they can complete the job. They feel as if there’s no way they
will ever get ahead; they begin to become irritable. They feel ineffective, so
their work becomes less rewarding to them.
• Instead of becoming angry, some people become withdrawn, seeming to
shut out those around them. They show no emotion, seeming not to care
about anything. They may appear depressed or spaced out. They have
retreated into themselves as a self-protective measure.
• Examples:
•    Reduced work performance
•    Withdrawal from people
Yerkes-Dodson Law
 Physiology Of Stress

• Stress engages psychological distress and leads to

changes in the body that may have short- and long
term consequences for health. Two interrelated
systems are heavily involved in the stress response.
They are the sympathetic-adrenomedullary (SAM)
system and the hypothalamic-pituitary-
adrenocortical (HPA) axis.

[Ref. Taylor (2015): Health Psychology (9th Edition)]

 Physiology Of Stress
SYMPATHETIC Activation
• When events are perceived as harmful or threatening, they are
identified as such by the cerebral cortex, which, in turn, sets off a chain
of reactions mediated by these appraisals. Information from the cortex
is transmitted to the hypothalamus, which initiates one of the earliest
responses to stress—namely, sympathetic nervous system arousal.
• Sympathetic arousal stimulates the medulla of the adrenal glands,
which, in turn, secrete the catecholamines epinephrine (EP) and
norepinephrine (NE). These effects result in the cranked-up feeling we
usually experience in response to stress: increased blood pressure,
increased heart rate, increased sweating, and constriction of peripheral
blood vessels, among other changes. The catecholamines modulate the
immune system as well.
[Ref. Taylor (2015): Health Psychology (9th Edition)]
 Physiology Of Stress
SYMPATHETIC Activation

• Parasympathetic functioning may also become

dysregulated in response to stress. For example, stress can
affect heart rate variability. Parasympathetic modulation is
an important restorative aspect of sleep, and so, changes in
heart rate variability may both represent a pathway to
disturbed sleep and help to explain the relation of stress to
illness and increased risk for mortality (Hall et al., 2004).
[Ref. Taylor (2015): Health Psychology (9th Edition)]
 Physiology Of Stress
Hypothalamic Pituitary Adrenal (HPA) Axis

• The hypothalamic-pituitary adrenal (HPA) axis is also activated

in response to stress. The hypothalamus releases corticotrophin
releasing hormone (CRH), which stimulates the pituitary gland
to secrete adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), which, in turn,
stimulates the adrenal cortex to release glucocorticoids. Of
these, cortisol is especially significant. It acts to conserve stores
of carbohydrates and helps reduce inflammation in the case of
an injury. It also helps the body return to its steady state
following stress.
[Ref. Taylor (2015): Health Psychology (9th Edition)]
 Physiology Of Stress
Hypothalamic Pituitary Adrenal (HPA) Axis
•Repeated activation of the HPA axis in response to chronic or recurring stress can ultimately
compromise its functioning. Daily cortisol patterns may be altered. Normally, cortisol levels are
high upon waking in the morning, but decrease during the day (although peaking following
lunch) until they flatten out at low levels in the afternoon. People under chronic stress,
however, can show any of several deviant patterns: elevated cortisol levels long into the
afternoon or evening, a general fl attening of the diurnal rhythm, an exaggerated cortisol
response to a challenge, a protracted cortisol response following a stressor, or, alternatively, no
response at all (McEwen, 1998).
•Any of these patterns is suggestive of compromised ability of the HPA axis to respond to and
recover from stress (McEwen, 1998; Pruessner, Hellhammer, Pruessner, & Lupien, 2003) (Figure
6.3*). - *see next slide
[Ref. Taylor (2015): Health Psychology (9 th Edition)]
 Physiology of Stress:
Figure 6.3: How Does
Stress Cause Illness?
• Direct physiological effects
result from sympathetic
nervous system and/or HPA
activation. In addition, as this
figure shows, stress may affect
health via behaviors, first, by
influencing health behavior,
second, by affecting the use of
psychosocial resources and,
third, by interfering with
treatment and the use of
health services.

[Ref. Taylor (2015): Health Psychology

(9th Edition)]
 Stimulus Based Models of Stress
• The stimulus based approach views stress as an independent variable
whereas the response-based approach does not. Thus the stimulus
characteristics of the environment are considered as disturbing or
disruptive in some way. (Cox, 1978; Cox & Nackay,1981; Sutherland &
Cooper, 1990). This model is essentially an engineering one
incorporating Hooke’s law of elasticity from Physics.
• Hooke’s law states that a load or a demand (the stress), which is
exerted on the metal, causes a strain resulting in deformation in the
metal. Each material has an elastic limit and if the strain produced by a
given stress falls within this limit, when the stress is removed, the
metal will return to its original condition. Only when the strain is
greater than the given elastic limit, permanent damage will occur.
• Applied to humans, this analogy implies that different individuals have
different breaking points. Individuals are able to tolerate certain levels
of stress but once this is exceeded, permanent damage, either
physiological or psychological, will occur. The stimulus-based approach
is shown in the Figure on the next slide.
Stimulus Based Models of Stress
 Response Based Models of Stress
• The response-based approach regards stress as a response or
a pattern and is treated as a dependant variable (Cox, 1978;
Cox & Mackay, 1981; Sutherland & Cooper, 1990). The study of
stress tends to be concerned with the response of an
individual when the individual is exposed to an environmental
stimulus or demand. The focus of the model is the
manifestation of stress.
• The response-based approach to stress is exemplified in the
writing of Hans Selye who was one of the first researchers to
attempt to explain the process of stress-related illness in
terms of the general adaptation syndrome (GAS) (Cox &
Mackay, 1981; Cartwright & Cooper, 2002). The response-
based approach is shown in the Figure on the next slide.
Response Based Models of Stress
 Interactional & Transactional
Models of Stress
• Cox and Griffiths (1995) make a distinction between two types of
psychological model of work stress: interactional or structural
approaches, such as the DCS (demand control i.e., ‘interactional’)
model; and transactional or process models.
• Interactional models focus on the structural characteristics of the
stress process, i.e. which stressors are likely to lead to which
outcomes in which populations; however, transactional views are
more cognitive, and focus on the dynamic relationship that occurs
between individuals and their environment in terms of mental and
emotional processes (Cox et al. 2000).
• Transactional views often place emphasis on the role of subjective
perceptions of the environment, and are more likely to acknowledge
the possible impact of individual difference factors, such as
differences in coping, appraisal, personality, locus of control etc.
[Ref. Mark & Smith, 2008: Stress models: A review and suggested new direction]
 Interactional Model of Stress
[The Demands-Control Model]
• The Demands-Control model (Karasek 1979) is currently perhaps the
most influential model of stress in the workplace (Kompier, 2003)
and the original model focuses on the two psychosocial job
characteristics of job demands and job control. The latter factor is
sometimes called decision latitude (Karasek, 1979) and is made up
of the sub-factors of decision authority (control over work situation)
and skill discretion (possibility of using learnt skills and
competencies).
• Cox and Griffiths (1995) call the demand-control model an
“interactional” model, as it focuses on the structural features of an
individual’s interactions with their environment (as opposed to the
process of what is occurring in this interaction).
[Ref. Mark & Smith, 2008: Stress models: A review and suggested new direction]
 Interactional Model of Stress
[The Demands-Control Model]
• Karasek’s (1979) research showed that those exposed to high levels of
demand, as well as having low levels of job control (high-strain
situation) were disproportionately more likely to show increased levels
of depression, fatigue, and cardiovascular disease and mortality.
However, the lowest levels of illness were in individuals with moderate
or even high demands, if they also had high levels of job control
(challenge situation).
• Karasek (1979) thus proposed an interaction where high demands and
low control would predict high strain, but that high control would
buffer the negative effect of demands on outcomes. The model was
expanded (Johnson & Hall, 1988) to include social support (DCS) as
evidence suggested that support may act as a buffer in high demand
situations (Cooper, Dewe, & O’Driscoll, 2001; Karasek & Theorell, 1990;
Lim, 1996).
[Ref. Mark & Smith, 2008: Stress models: A review and suggested new direction]
 Transactional Models of Stress
Lazarus and Folkman
• Two of the most well known Transactional Models of Stress were
proposed by: Lazarus & Folkman’s and Cox & Mackay.
• Lazarus and Folkman’s theory of psychological stress and coping (1980) is
perhaps the most theoretically influential transactional theory. Sometimes
known as the Cognitive-Relational approach, the individual and their
environment are seen as coexisting in a dynamic relationship, where stress
is the psychological and emotional state that is internally represented as
part of a stressful transaction (Folkman, Lazarus, Gruen & DeLongis, 1986).
The two key concepts in this process are appraisal and coping (Cox et al.,
2000). Folkman et al (1986) describe primary appraisal as the first stage of
the appraisal process, where encounters are subjectively evaluated to see
what is at stake in terms of potential risk (Perrewe & Zellars, 1999) and
these assessments allow for the influence of individual differences,
because the nature of what is considered stressful is individual-specific
(Park & Folkman, 1997).
[Ref. Mark & Smith, 2008: Stress models: A review and suggested new direction]
 Transactional Models of Stress
Lazarus and Folkman
• In later work, Park and Folkman (1997) write that the attribution of
meaning that individuals give to events, can be framed by existing beliefs
based on their global meaning. These are enduring beliefs and valued
goals, based on fundamental assumptions, theories of reality (e.g.
religion), self-worth, life experience etc. Park and Folkman (1997) propose
that the making of situational meaning is what occurs when an individual’s
global beliefs and goals interact with the specifics of a particular person-
environment transaction which are defined by the processes of appraisal
and coping.
• If a situation is evaluated as potentially stressful, then secondary appraisal
occurs, which is where the individual evaluates if the potential harm can
be altered, avoided or prevented (Park & Folkman, 1997), where to assign
blame or credit, and what future expectations are. Potential actions or
ways of coping are assessed, informed by past coping experience,
personality, personal resources (and presumably global meaning).
[Ref. Mark & Smith, 2008: Stress models: A review and suggested new direction]
 Transactional Models of Stress
Lazarus and Folkman
• Folkman and Lazarus (1980) described many types of coping
behaviours, and suggested that they could be aggregated into two
major categories of coping response: problem-focused coping
(attempts to cope using more rational problem solving type
approaches) or emotion-focused coping (emotional-oriented coping
approaches) each of which are suitable in different kinds of
situation.
• While the problem focused/emotion focused distinction has been
popular in research, many argue that it is important to split coping
into more distinct categories (many based on Folkman and Lazarus’
work) such as problem focused coping, seeking social support,
blamed self, wishful thinking, and avoidance (Vitaliano, Russo, Carr,
Maiuro, and Becker, 1985) and action oriented coping,
accommodation, positive thinking, seeking support, self blame and
defence (Falkum, Olff, and Aasland, 1997).
[Ref. Mark & Smith, 2008: Stress models: A review and suggested new direction]
 Transactional Models of Stress
Lazarus and Folkman
• Once possible coping methods are assessed and selected, then the final stage of
the model occurs, where coping is implemented. Coping has been characterised
as (Folkman et al, 1986) “cognitive and behavioural efforts to manage (reduce,
minimise, master, or tolerate) the internal and external demands of the person-
environment transaction that is appraised as taxing or exceeding the person’s
resources”. Park and Folkman (1997) suggest that coping is the main method by
which incongruence between global meaning and situational meaning is
managed. A failure to cope successfully (from excessive demands or lack of
resources) is likely to lead to stress and negative health and organisational
outcomes (Cox et al. 2000).
• The cognitive-relational model gives weight to the job situation, subjective
perceptions, and the potential influence of various individual differences factors,
and indeed Lazarus argues (1991) that many stress management interventions fail
because they treat all people as if they were alike, and it is useful to view the
individual, the group, and the workplace as a single analytic unit, rather than
separate variables which are to be manipulated independently.
[Ref. Mark & Smith, 2008: Stress models: A review and suggested new direction]
 Transactional Models of Stress
Cox & Mackay
• Cox’s transactional model of work stress (Cox, 1978; Cox & Mackay, 1981; Cox et
al, 2000) is closely related to the work of Lazarus and colleagues and many of the
processes and stages in the two models are similar, however there are certain
important differences in Cox’s model, particularly a clarified structure and greater
focus on occupational health and individual differences (Cox & Ferguson, 1991).
• Cox’s framework (1978) has five stages. The first stage represents the demand or
job characteristics of the environment, and the second stage represents the
individuals’ perceptions of these demands relative to their ability to cope (Cox et
al., 2000). These two stages could be seen as analogous to the primary appraisal
stage of Folkman and Lazarus’ model (1981). Stress is conceptualised as being the
psychological state that occurs when there is a mismatch between perceptions of
the significance of a demand, and beliefs about one’s ability to cope with it (Cox et
al, 2000).
• Cox and Ferguson (1991) describe how this primary appraisal process is influenced
by the internal and external demands experienced, as well as coping abilities and
resources, and support from others.
[Ref. Mark & Smith, 2008: Stress models: A review and suggested new direction]
 Transactional Models of Stress
Cox & Mackay
• The third stage of the model is associated with the mental and physical
changes that the person undergoes as a result of the recognition of a stress
state, and involves secondary appraisal and coping, which are analogous to
those in Folkman and Lazarus’ model (Cox et al, 2000). Cox and Ferguson
(1991) describe the psychological changes that occur in a stress state,
including mood change, emotional experience, e.g. tension, feeling worn out,
or depressed etc, as the defining feature of the stress state for the individual.
• Thus, the awareness of a stressful problem initiates a cycle of behaviours that
are “an adjustment to the situation, or an adjustment of the situation” failure
of which leads to negative health outcomes. The fourth stage of the model
represents the outcomes or consequences of coping, and finally, the fifth and
last stage is feedback which is proposed to occur in relation to all other stages
(Cox et al, 2000).
[Ref. Mark & Smith, 2008: Stress models: A review and suggested new direction]
 Transactional Models of Stress
Cox & Mackay
• Cox and Ferguson (1991) state that primary appraisal is a continual
monitoring process, and secondary appraisal is a distinct decision
making process, and that the entire stress process is grounded in a
“problem solving” context. Cox (1987) writes that the basic framework
for this context involves recognition of a problem, diagnosis,
suggestion of possible solutions, evaluation of suggested solutions,
implementation, feedback, and learning, and that such a problem-
solving approach can also be used as the basis for organisational
interventions.
• Cox and Ferguson (1991) make a point of stressing the importance of
individual differences in this transactional model. Differences in locus
of control, hardiness, and coping resources are deemed particularly
important, and may exert effects in the model via a mediating role in
appraisal, and a moderating role in helping to determine health
outcomes.
[Ref. Mark & Smith, 2008: Stress models: A review and suggested new direction]
Person Environment Fit Model of Stress
• Robert Kahn was concerned with the social
psychology of stress, so his
person−environment fit approach
emphasized the idea that confusing and
conflicting expectations of a person in a social
role create stress for that person. He
extended the approach to consider a person’s
fit in the environment.
• A good person–environment fit occurs when
one’s skills and abilities match a clearly
defined, consistent set of role expectations.
Stress occurs when the role expectations are
confusing and/or conflict with one’s skills and
abilities. After a period of this type of stress,
one can expect to experience symptoms of
strain such as depression.
[Ref. Nelson & Quick (2019): Organizational Behaviour]
Person Environment Fit Model of Stress

Key Points
• Confusing and conflicting
expectations in a social role create
stress.
• Good person-environment fit occurs
when one’s skills and abilities match a
clearly defined set of role
expectations.
• Stress occurs when expectations are
confusing or when they conflict with
one’s skills.

[Ref. Nelson & Quick (2019): Organizational Behaviour]

Person Environment Fit Model of Stress
[Workplace Context]

• Person–environment fit (PE) theory offers a framework for

assessing and predicting how characteristics of the employee
and the work environment jointly determine worker well-being
and, in the light of this knowledge, how a model for identifying
points of preventive intervention may be elaborated. Several PE
fit formulations have been proposed, the most widely known
ones being those of Dawis and Lofquist (1984); French, Rodgers
and Cobb (1974); Levi (1972); McGrath (1976); and Pervin (1967).
The theory of French and colleagues, illustrated in the figure
(*see next slide) , may be used to discuss the conceptual
components of PE fit theory and their implications for research
and application.
[Ref: ILO Encyclopaedia of Occupational Health & Safety]
Person Environment Fit Model of Stress
Schematic Of French, Rogers And Cobb’s Theory Of
Person-Environment (PE) Fit

[Ref: ILO Encyclopaedia Of Occupational Health & Safety]

Person Environment Fit Model of Stress

• Poor PE fit can be viewed from the perspectives of the

employee’s needs (needs–supplies fit) as well as the job–
environment’s demands (demands–abilities fit). The term
needs–supplies fit refers to the degree to which employee
needs, such as the need to use skills and abilities, are met by
the work environment’s supplies and opportunities to
satisfy those needs.
• Demands–abilities fit refers to the degree to which the job’s
demands are met by the employee’s skills and abilities.
These two types of fit can overlap. For example, work
overload may leave the employer’s demands unmet as well
as threaten the employee’s need to satisfy others.
[Ref: ILO Encyclopaedia of Occupational Health & Safety]
Person Environment Fit Model of Stress

• In summary, French, Rodgers and Cobb (1974) saw stress and the
resulting strain as a product of the interaction between the
individual and the potential sources of stress in the environment.
According to this model, occupational stress is primarily a result of
inadequate person-environment fit. One kind of fit is the extent to
which the individual’s skills and abilities match the demands and
requirements of the job. The second fit is the extent to which the
job environment provides support to meet the individual’s need.
The resulting stress and stressors are major contributors to
psychological and physical strain.
• French, et al. (1974) define occupational stress as the characteristic
of the job that poses a threat to the individual, and occupational
strain as the deviation from a normal response that an individual
would experience in any situation (Sharif & Savendy, 1982;
Harrison, 1978).
 Person Environment Fit Model of Stress
P-E fit and Organizational Effectiveness
[Ref. Edwards, Caplan & Harrison (1998)]
• Harrison (1985) points out that, just as the person’s functioning and survival
depend on the fulfillment of needs, the effectiveness and survival of an
organization depend on the fulfillment of demands it places on its employees.
These demands are manifestations of the needs of the organization, and
employees’ abilities may be viewed as supplies by which the needs of the
organization can be fulfilled (Caplan, 1983).
• For example, the functional and operational needs of an organization may be
translated into position descriptions that articulate specific job demands, and
human resource personnel may seek to fulfill these needs by attracting, selecting,
and retaining a supply of qualified employees (Schneider & Schmitt, 1992).
Analogously, needs expressed by employees place demands on an organization, and
supplies received by employees reflect the organization’s ability to meet these
demands. Thus, organizations that are able to meet demands that signify salient
employee needs may experience less turnover than organizations that cannot meet
these demands (Irving & Meyer, 1994; Wanous, Poland, Premack, & Davis, 1992).
Person Environment Fit Model of Stress
P-E fit and Organizational Effectiveness

• Harrison (1985) also examines objective and subjective person and

environment constructs from the perspective of the organization. Contact
with reality represents the accuracy of employee assessment and appraisal
procedures, and accuracy of self-assessment translates into the
organization’s awareness of the demands it places on employees and the
rewards it provides to employees.
• In developing these parallels regarding PE fit for the person and
organization, Harrison (1985) notes that the organization serves as a
metaphor for organizational members, such as supervisors, co-workers, or
staffing personnel. Thus, the principles developed by Harrison (1985) may
be readily applied to the study of fit in dyadic relationships (Shumaker &
Brownell, 1984).
[Ref. Edwards, Caplan & Harrison (1998): Person-Environment Fit Theory: Conceptual
Foundations, Empirical Evidence, and Directions for Future Research]
 Person Environment Fit Model of Stress
[Organizational Context]
• There are 4 domains of exploring P-E Fit Model in the Organizational context.
1. Person—Job Fit
2. Person—Organization Fit
3. Person—Group Fit
4. Person—Supervisor Fit
• Person—Job Fit: The TWA (Theory of Work Adjustment) posits that a satisfying
job is the result of individual and organizational adjustments intended to create
correspondence between individual and environmental attributes. TWA
researchers (e.g., Rounds et al. 1987) have emphasized that person–job fit can
be established only if individual and environmental attributes are
commensurate, that is, when they belong to similar conceptual domains, are
logically related to and interdependent on one another, and are measured with
similar rating scales. As stress and burnout are prominent negative outcomes of
work, researchers have extensively studied the determinants of these negative
outcomes (e.g., Cooper et al. 2001). Stress and burnout have been thought to
result from a given situation, the characteristics of an individual, or the
interaction between these factors (e.g., Longua et al. 2009).
[Ref. van Vianen (2018): Person–Environment Fit: A Review of Its Basic Tenets; Annual Review of
Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior]
 Person Environment Fit Model of Stress
[Organizational Context]
• Person—Job Fit – Contd.
• The person–job fit literature (e.g., French et al. 1982) views stress and strain
as the outcomes of a discrepancy between individual and job characteristics.
Person–job fit research has typically been focused on job attributes such as
demands and workload, job insecurity, (lack of ) promotion opportunities,
role ambiguity, (lack of ) supervisor support, and autonomy. Several studies
have provided evidence that needs–supplies and demands–abilities misfits
cause strain (Hecht & Allen 2005, Yang et al. 2008a).
• Furthermore, while both of these fits relate to job attitudes (satisfaction,
commitment, and intentions to quit), needs–supplies fit has the greatest
impact on job attitudes (Kristof-Brown et al. 2005). Demand–abilities fit
seems relatively more important for performance and less important for job
attitudes and strain because employees may tend to overestimate their
abilities and demands–abilities fit as to preserve their self-esteem (Cable &
DeRue 2002), and their personality characteristics (e.g., optimism, locus of
control, self-efficacy) may mitigate the mental consequences of misfit (Park et
al. 2012).
[Ref. van Vianen (2018): Person–Environment Fit: A Review of Its Basic Tenets; Annual
Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior]
 Person Environment Fit Model of Stress
[Organizational Context]

• Person—Organizational Fit: Person–organization fit is generally

established by comparing personal values with those of the
organization. Personal values are “abstract beliefs about desirable,
trans-situational goals that serve as guiding principles in people’s
lives” (Vecchione et al. 2016, p. 111). Values are central to individuals’
self-concepts, are relatively stable across situations and over time,
and direct attitudes and behavior. At the organizational level, values
are the basic assumptions that are central to an organization’s culture
(Schein 2004). Value fit was found to be relatively strongly related to
job attitudes, less strongly related to contextual performance, and
only marginally related to overall and task performance and actual
turnover (Arthur et al. 2006, Kristof-Brown et al. 2005). The weak
relationships between value fit and performance and actual turnover
tend to be mediated by job attitudes (Arthur et al. 2006).
[Ref. van Vianen (2018): Person–Environment Fit: A Review of Its Basic Tenets; Annual Review of
Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior]
 Person Environment Fit Model of Stress
[Organizational Context]
• Person—Group (or Team) Fit: Person–team fit refers to the match between
the person and their immediate coworkers in terms of demographics, values,
goals, personality, and skills. Studies examining surface-level attributes such as
demographics in teams are inspired by theories of social categorization (e.g.,
Chatman & Flynn 2001) and literatures on team diversity (e.g., Joshi & Knight
2015). These studies investigated team-level outcomes (e.g., team processes,
coherence, and functioning) rather than individual-level outcomes. Studies
examining deep-level attributes such as goals and values are rooted in fit
theory and mainly focus on predicting individual-level (Seong & Kristof-Brown
2012) and occasionally team-level outcomes (Kristof-Brown et al. 2014).
• In these studies, personal attributes (e.g., goals, personality) are compared
with the attributes of other team members (Kristof-Brown & Stevens 2001).
Person–team fit was found to be moderately related to coworker satisfaction,
job attitudes, and organizational citizenship behaviors and somewhat more
weakly related to task performance (Kristof-Brown et al. 2005). Other factors
than person–team fit (e.g., capacities, work conditions) may affect individual
task performance more strongly.
[Ref. van Vianen (2018): Person–Environment Fit: A Review of Its Basic Tenets; Annual Review of
Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior]
 Person Environment Fit Model of Stress
[Organizational Context]
• Person—Supervisor Fit: Person–supervisor fit refers to the match between
employees’ characteristics and those of their supervisor. Supervisors are important for
employees because they can provide rewards and career opportunities.Moreover,
supervisors transmit organizational values to the daily work environment (Schein 2004)
and thus shape their employees’ environmental experiences through their own values
and actions. According to the similarity attraction hypothesis, similarity with the
supervisor fosters feelings of inclusion and certainty, high leader–member exchange, and
trust in the supervisor (Van Vianen et al. 2011). Because supervisors tend to fit with the
values of the organization (e.g., Giberson et al. 2005), similarity with the supervisor may
promote work behaviors that concur with the values and goals of the organization (Sluss
et al. 2012), which will result in positive performance and reward.
• Although person–supervisor fit and person–organization fit are associated, these fits are
conceptually distinct. Person–supervisor fit concerns a comparison process on individual-
level attributes, whereas person–organization fit concerns a comparison process on
organization-level attributes. Moreover, person–supervisor fit primarily impacts
employees’ attitudes toward the proximal work context, whereas person–organization fit
impacts employees’ attitudes toward the distal organizational context (Van Vianen et al.
2011). Supervisor fit was found to relate most strongly to supervisor and job satisfaction
and less strongly to organizational commitment and performance (Kristof-Brown et al.
2005).
[Ref. van Vianen (2018): Person–Environment Fit: A Review of Its Basic Tenets; Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and
Organizational Behavior]