University of Zakho

Faculty of Science
Department of Computer Science
Information stem and Analysis
fourth Semester

Information System
COCOMO (Constrictive Cost Model)

Prepared by Supervisor
Abdulhakeem Ashti Mr. Mohammed Alwahb
Ibrahim juma
Salih Yaseen
Haval Anwar
Zher Mohammed Salih
may, 2021
 COCOMO Models

• COCOMO is defined in terms of three different

models:
– the Basic model,
– the Intermediate model, and
– the Detailed model.
• The more complex models account for more
factors that influence software projects,
and make more accurate estimates.

2
 B.W. Boehm Introduced COCOMO model in 1981.
 Based on a cost database of more than 60
different projects
 This model estimates the total effort in
terms of
“person-months” of the technical project staff.
 COCOMO is a hierarchy of cost estimation models
it includes three forms of cocomo: basic,
intermediate and detailed sub model.
Itcan be applied in 3 classes of software project:

1. Organic mode :
Relatively simple & small projects with a small team are
handled. Such a team should have good application
experience to less rigid requirements. relatively small
and requires little innovation

2. Semidetached mode:
For intermediate software projects(little complex
compared to organic mode projects in terms of size) in
which teams with mixed experience levels must work to
a set of rigid and less than rigid requirements

3.Embedded mode:
When the software project must be developed within
a tight set of hardware and software operational
constraints.
Ex of complex project: Air traffic control system
 Comparison of three COCOMO
modes
Mode Project Nature of Deadlin Developmen
Size Innovation Project e of the t
Project Environmen
Organi Typically Small Size Littl Not tFamiliar
c 2 – 50 Projects, e tight And In
KLOC experience house
d
developers.
Semi- Typically Medium size Medium Medium Medium
Detache 50 – 300 project, average
d KLOC previous
experience on
similar
projects.

Embedded Typically Large projects, Significant Tight Complex

over 300 complex Hardware
KLOC interfaces, /
very little Customer
previous interfaces
• The basic model aims at estimating, in a quick
and rough fashion, most of the small to
medium sized software projects.
• Depending on the problem at hand, the team
might include a mixture of experienced and
less experienced people with only a recent
history of working together.
• It does not account for differences in hardware
constraints, personnel quality and experience,
use of modern tools and techniques, and other
project attributes known to have a significant
influence on software costs, which limits its
accuracy
The Basic COCOMO equations E = effort applied in
take the form: terms
E = ab (KLOC)bb persons-months of person months
D = Deployment
D = cb (E)db
time SS = staff size
months SS = E/D P = productivity
persons ab ,bb ,cb ,db =
P = KLOC/E Coefficients
TDEV= Development
TDEV = cbEdb
Basic COCOMO Co-Time
efficients ab
Project bb cb db

Organic mode 2.4 1.05 2.5 0.38

Semidetache 3.0 1.12 2.5 0.35

d mode
Embedded mode 3.6 1.20 2.5 0.32
Example :

Suppose that a project was estimated to be 400 KLOC.

Calculate the effort and development time for each of
the three modes i.e. organic , semidetached and
Solution
embedded. The basic COCOMO equations take the
form: E = ab (KLOC)bb
D =cb (E)db
Estimated size of the project =400 KLOC
1. Organic Mode
E = 2.4 (400)1.05 = 1295.3
PM
D = 2.5 (1295.31)0.38 =
38.07 M
2. Semi detached Mode
E = 3.0 (400)1.12 = 2462.7
PM
D = 2.5 (2462.79)0.35 =
 consider a software project using semi- detached
Example:
mode with 30,000 lines of code . We will obtain
estimation for this project as follows:

(1)Effort estimation
E= ab(KLOC) bb person-months
E=3.0(30)1.12 where lines of code=30000=30 KLOC
E=135 person-month
(2) Duration estimation
D= cb (E)db months
=2.5(135)0.35
D=14 months

(3) Person estimation

SS=E/D
=135/14
SS=10 persons
approx.
Example: We have determined our project fits
the characteristics of Semi-Detached mode &
We estimate our project will have 32,000
Delivered Source Instructions.
Using the formulas, we can estimate:
 Effort = 3.0*(32) 1.12 = 146 man-months
 Duration = 2.5*(146) 0.35 = 14 months
 Productivity = 32,000 DSI / 146
MM
 Person = 219 DSI/MM
estimation = 146 M M /14 months
= 10 FSP
Merits of Basic Cocomo model:
Basic cocomo model is good for quick, early, rough
order
of magnitude estimates of software project.

Limitations :
1.The accuracy of this model is limited because it does
not consider certain factors for cost estimation of
software. These factors are hardware constraints,
personal quality and experiences, modern
techniques and tools.

2. The estimates of Cocomo model are within a

factor of
1.3 only 29% of the time and within the factor of 2
only
60% of time.
In the Intermediate model Boehm introduced an additional
set of 15 predictors called cost drivers in the intermediate
model to take account of the software development
environment. Cost drivers are used to adjust the nominal
cost of a project to the actual project environment to
increase the accuracy of the estimate.
The cost drivers are grouped into 4 categories:-
1. Product attributes
a. Required software reliability (RELY)
b. Database size (DATA)
c. Product complexity (CPLX)
2. Computer attributes
a. Execution time constraint (TIME)
b. Main store constraint (STOR)
c. Virtual machine volatility (VIRT)
d. Computer turnaround time (TURN)
3. Personnel attributes
a. Analyst capability (ACAP)
b. Application experience (AEXP)
c. Programmer capability (PCAP)
d. Virtual machine experience (VEXP)
e. Programming Language experience (LEXP)
4. Project attributes
a. Morden programming practices (MODP)
b. Use of software tool (TOOL)
c. Required development schedule (SCED)
Each cost driver is rated for a given project
environment. The rating uses a scale very low, low,
nominal, high, very high, extra high which describes to
what extent the cost driver applies to the project being
estimated.
This model Identifies personnel, product, computer
and project attributes which affect cost
Multiplier Values For Effort Calculation s
Ratings
Cost Drivers Very Low Nominal High Very Extra
Low High
Product attributes
High
RELY 0.75 0.88 1.00 1.15 1.40 -
DATA - 0.94 1.00 1.08 1.16 -
CPLX 0.70 0.85 1.00 1.15 1.30 1.65
Computer attributes
TIME - - 1.00 1.11 1.30 1.66
STOR - - 1.00 1.06 1.21 1.56
VIRT - 0.87 1.00 1.15 1.30 -
TURN - 0.87 1.00 1.07 1.15 -
Personnel attributes
ACAP 1.46 1.19 1.00 0.86 0.71 -
AEXP 1.29 1.13 1.00 0.91 0.82 -
PCAP 1.42 1.17 1.00 0.86 0.70 -
VEXP 1.21 1.10 1.00 0.90 - -
LEXP 1.14 1.07 1.00 0.95 - -
Project attributes
MODP 1.24 1.10 1.00 0.91 0.82 -
TOOL 1.24 1.10 1.00 0.91 0.83 -
SCED 1.23 1.08 1.00 1.04 1.10 -
The Intermediate EAF = Effort
COCOMO equations take Adjustment
the=form:
E ai (KLOC)bi * factor E = effort
D = Deployment
EAF D = ci (E)di time
SS = E/D SS = staff size
persons P = P = productivity
KLOC/E a i , b i , c i , di =
Coefficients
Co- efficients for Intermediate
COCOMO
Project ai bi ci di

Organic mode 3.2 1.05 2.5 0.38

Semidetache 3.0 1.12 2.5 0.35

d mode
Embedded mode 2.8 1.20 2.5 0.32
Example :

A new project with estimated 400 KLOC embedded system has to be developed.
Project manager has a choice of hiring from two pools of developers : with very
high application experience and very little experience in the programming
language being used or developers of very low application experience but a lot of
experience with the programming language. What is the impact of hiring all
developers from one or the other pool.
Solution
This is the case of embedded mode
Hence E = ai (KLOC)bi * EAF D = ci (E)di Case 1: Developers are with
very high application experience and very little experience in the
programming language being used.
EAF = 0.82 *1.14 = 0.9348
E = 2.8(400)1.20 * 0.9348 = 3470 PM
D = 2.5 (3470)0.32 =
33.9 M
Case 2: developers of very low application experience but a lot of experience
with the programming language.
EAF = 1.29*0.95 = 1.22
E = 2.8 (400)1.20 *1.22 = 4528PM
D = 2.5 (4528)0.32 = 36.9 M
Case 2 requires more effort and time. Hence, low quality application experience
but a lot of programming language experience could not match with the very
high application experience and very little programming language experience.
A large amount of work is done by Boehm to capture
all significant aspects of a software development. It
offers a means for processing all the project
characteristics to construct a software estimate.
Capabilities
Of
Detailed
Model

Three-
Phase-Sensitive
Level
Effort
Product
Multipliers
Hierarchy
Phase-Sensitive Effort Multipliers:
Some phases (design, programming, integration/test) are
more affected than others by factors defined by the cost
drivers. This helps in determining the man power
allocation for each phase of the project.

Three-Level Product Hierarchy:-

Three product levels are defined. These are module,
subsystem and system levels. The rating of the cost
drivers are done at appropriate level; that is, the level at
which it is most susceptible to variation.
A software development is carried out in four
successive phases:-
1. Plan/ requirements: This is the first phase of the
development cycle. The requirement is analyzed, the
product plan is set up and a full product specification
is generated. This phase consumes from 6% to 8% of
the effort and 10% to 40% of the development time.

2. Product Design: The second phase of the COCOMO

development cycle is concerned with the determination
of the product architecture and the specification of the
subsystem. This phase requires from 16% to 18% of the
nominal effort and can last from 19% to 38% of the
development time.
3. Programming: The third phase of the COCOMO
development cycle is divided into two sub phases:
detailed design and code/unit test. This phase requires
from 48% to 68% of the effort and lasts from 24% to
64% of the development time.

4. Integration/test: This phase of the COCOMO

development cycle occurs before delivery. This mainly
consist of putting the tested parts together and then
testing the final product this phase requires from 16%
to 34% of the nominal effort and can last from 18%
to 34% of the development time.
 Effort and schedule fractions occurring in each phase of lifecycle
Plan Syste Detail Module Integrat
Mode and code and m code i on and
require design desig and test test
size ment n
Lifecycle Phase Value of µb
Organic Small S ≈ 0.06 0.16 0.4 0.1
2
Organic Medium S ≈ 32 0.26 2
0.3 6
0.2
Semidetached Medium S ≈ 32 0.06
0.07 0.17 0.16 8
0.3 2
0.2
0.25 0.24 3 5
0.3 0.2
Semide ta ched Large S ≈ 128 0.07 0.17 1
0.2 8
0.3
0.24 6 1
Embedded Extra Large S ≈ 320 0.08 0.18 0.2 0.3
Em
0.24bedded Large S ≈ 128 0.08 0.18 4 4
0.25
Lifecycle Phase Value of 0.3 0.1
9
0.3 8
0.2
b
4
0.2 6
0.2
Organic Small S ≈ 2 0.10 0.19
7
0.2 6
0.2
0.24
5
0.1 9
0.2
Organic Medium S ≈ 32 0.12 0.19
0.21 8
0.1 8
0.3
 EAF = Effort Adjustment
The Detailed COCOMO
factor
equations take the E = effort
form: D = Deployment
E = ai (KLOC)bi * time SS = staff size
EAF P = productivity
µpp =
=Used
Used for
for effort
D = ci schedule
(E)di Ep =
µpE Dp =
pD
SS = E/D
persons P =
KLOC/E
Example :

Consider a project to develop a full screen editor. The major

components identified are (1) Screen edit, (2) Command Language
Interpreter, (3) File input and output, (4) Cursor movement and (5)
Screen movement.
The sizes for these are estimated to be 4K, 2K, 1K, 2K and 3K
delivered source code lines. Use COCOMO model to determine:
(a) Overall cost and schedule estimates (assume values for different
cost
drivers, with at least three of them being different from 1.0).
(b) Cost and schedule estimates for different phases.
SolutionScreen edit = 4KLOC
Size of 5 modules
Command are:-
Language = 2KLOC
Interpreter File input and = 1KLOC
output = 2KLOC
Cursor movement = 3KLOC
and Screen =
movement total 12KLOC
 Let us assume that significant cost drivers
are
(1)Required software reliability is high 1.1
i.e. 1.1
5
(2)Product complexity is high i.e. 5
(3)Analyst capability is high i.e. 0.8
Henc (4)All other drivers are nominal i.e. 6
e EAF = 1.15 * 1.15 * 0.86 = 1.1373 1.0
(a) The initial effort estimate for the project 0
E = ai (KLOC)bi * EAF
=3.2(12)1.05 * 1.1373 = 49.449 PM
D = ci (E)di
= 2.5(49.44)0.38 =
11.007 M
(b) Phase wise cost and schedule estimates
Ep = µpE
Dp =

p D
Since sizeSystem
is onlyDesign
12 = 0.16 * 49.449 =
KLOC, it isDetailed Design
an organic = 0.26 * 49.449 =
7.911
smallModule
model. code and =12.856
0.42 * 49.449 =
test effort
Phase wise Integration and 20.768
Phase test
wiseisdevelopment
distribution given time = 0.16 * 49.449 =
duration
is: below:
System Design 7.911
= 0.19 * 11.007 =
Detailed Design 2.091
= 0.24 * 11.007 =
Module code and 2.641
test Integration and = 0.39 * 11.007 =
test 4.292
= 0.18 * 11.007 =
1.981
 T OOL DEMONSTRATION
(WEB BASED VERSION)
http://sunset.usc.edu/research/COCOMOII/expert_cocomo/expert_cocomo
2000.html
Its Free and easy to use. So Use it!
You can also get a standalone win32 version
Advantages and Disadvantages of COCOMO Model
Following are some advantages and disadvantages of the COCOMO model.

Advantages
•Easy to estimate the total cost of the project.
•Easy to implement with various factors.
•Provide ideas about historical projects.

Disadvantages
•It ignores requirements, customer skills, and hardware issues.
•It limits the accuracy of the software costs.
•It mostly depends on time factors.
 Conclusion

In this article, we discuss the project estimation model COCOMO, which describes
the effort and development time of the software project. It describes the different
projects with an estimate of the effort and scheduled time by considering multiple
factors.
 References

[1] “Software Engineering: A Practitioner’s

Approach” 5th Ed. by Roger S. Pressman, Mc- Graw-Hill, 2001
[2] “Software Engineering” by Ian Sommerville, Addison-Wesley, 2001
[3] Boehm, B. W. and R. Valerdi. Achievements and Challenges in Cocomo-Based Software
Resource Estimation published by IEEE Computer Society. 74- 83 (2008).
[4] Boehm, B. W. An Overview of the COCOMO 2.0 Software Cost Model (1999).
[5] Zaid, A., M. H. Selamat, A. A. A. Ghani, R. Atan and K. T. Wei.
Issues in Software Cost Estimation

www.totrialspoint.com

www.geeksforgeeks.com