Lecture 3:

Basic Elements of C++

 Increment and Decrement
Operators
• Increment operator: increase variable by 1
– Pre-increment: ++variable
– Post-increment: variable++
• Decrement operator: decrease variable by 1
– Pre-decrement: --variable
– Post-decrement: variable—
• What is the difference between the following?
x = 5; x = 5;
y = ++x; y = x++;

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 Output
• The syntax of cout and << is:

– Called an output statement

• The stream insertion operator is <<
• Expression evaluated and its value is printed at the
current cursor position on the screen

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 Output (cont’d.)
• A manipulator is used to format the output
– Example: endl causes insertion point to move to
beginning of next line

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 Output (cont’d.)
• The new line character is '\n'
– May appear anywhere in the string
cout << "Hello there.";
cout << "My name is James.";
Output:
Hello [Link] name is James.
cout << "Hello there.\n";
cout << "My name is James.";
Output :
Hello there.
My name is James.

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 Output (cont’d.)

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 Preprocessor Directives
• C++ has a small number of operations
• Many functions and symbols needed to run a C++
program are provided as collection of libraries
• Every library has a name and is referred to by a
header file
• Preprocessor directives are commands supplied to
the preprocessor program
• All preprocessor commands begin with #
• No semicolon at the end of these commands

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 Preprocessor Directives (cont’d.)
• Syntax to include a header file:

• For example:
#include <iostream>
– Causes the preprocessor to include the header file
iostream in the program
• Preprocessor commands are processed before the
program goes through the compiler

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 namespace and Using cin and
cout in a Program
• cin and cout are declared in the header file
iostream, but within std namespace
• To use cin and cout in a program, use the
following two statements:
#include <iostream>
using namespace std;

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 Using the string Data Type in a
Program
• To use the string type, you need to access its
definition from the header file string
• Include the following preprocessor directive:
#include <string>

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 Creating a C++ Program
• A C++ program is a collection of functions, one of
which is the function main
• The first line of the function main is called the
heading of the function:
– int main()
• The statements enclosed between the curly braces
({ and }) form the body of the function

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 Creating a C++ Program (cont’d.)
• A C++ program contains two types of statements:
– Declaration statements: declare things, such as variables
– Executable statements: perform calculations, manipulate
data, create output, accept input, etc.

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 Creating a C++ Program (cont’d.)
• C++ program has two parts:
– Preprocessor directives
– The program
• Preprocessor directives and program statements
constitute C++ source code (.cpp)
• Compiler generates object code (.obj)
• Executable code is produced and saved in a file with
the file extension .exe

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Debugging: Understanding and Fixing
Syntax Errors
• Compile a program
– Compiler will identify the syntax errors
– Specifies the line numbers where the errors occur
Example2_Syntax_Errors.cpp
c:\chapter 2 source code\example2_syntax_errors.cpp(9) : error
C2146: syntax error :
missing ';' before identifier 'num'
c:\chapter 2 source code\example2_syntax_errors.cpp(11) :
error C2065: 'tempNum' :
undeclared identifier

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 Syntax
• Syntax rules: indicate what is legal and what is not
legal
• Errors in syntax are found in compilation
int x; //Line 1
int y //Line 2: error
double z; //Line 3

y = w + x; //Line 4: error

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 Use of Blanks
• In C++, you use one or more blanks to separate
numbers when data is input
• Blanks are also used to separate reserved words and
identifiers from each other and from other symbols
• Blanks must never appear within a reserved word or
identifier

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 Use of Semicolons, Brackets, and
Commas
• All C++ statements end with a semicolon
– Also called a statement terminator
• { and } are not C++ statements
– Can be regarded as delimiters
• Commas separate items in a list

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 Semantics
• Semantics: set of rules that gives meaning to a
language
– Possible to remove all syntax errors in a program and still
not have it run
– Even if it runs, it may still not do what you meant it to do
• Ex: 2 + 3 * 5 and (2 + 3) * 5
are both syntactically correct expressions, but have
different meanings

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 Naming Identifiers
• Identifiers can be self-documenting:
– CENTIMETERS_PER_INCH
• Avoid run-together words :
– annualsale
– Solution:
• Capitalizing the beginning of each new word: annualSale
• Inserting an underscore just before a new word: annual_sale

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 Prompt Lines
• Prompt lines: executable statements that inform the
user what to do
cout << "Please enter a number between 1 and 10 and "
<< "press the return key" << endl;
cin >> num;

• Always include prompt lines when input is needed

from users

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 Documentation
• A well-documented program is easier to understand
and modify
• You use comments to document programs
• Comments should appear in a program to:
– Explain the purpose of the program
– Identify who wrote it
– Explain the purpose of particular statements

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 Form and Style
• Consider two ways of declaring variables:
– Method 1
int feet, inch;
double x, y;
– Method 2
int feet,inch;double x,y;
• Both are correct; however, the second is hard to read

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 Summary
• C++ program: collection of functions, one of which is
always called main
• Identifiers consist of letters, digits, and underscores,
and begins with letter or underscore
• The arithmetic operators in C++ are addition (+),
subtraction (-), multiplication (*), division (/), and
modulus (%)
• Arithmetic expressions are evaluated using the
precedence associativity rules

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 Summary (cont’d.)
• All operands in an integral expression are integers
• All operands in a floating-point expression are
decimal numbers
• Mixed expression: contains both integers and
decimal numbers
• Use the cast operator to explicitly convert values
from one data type to another
• A named constant is initialized when declared
• All variables must be declared before used

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 Summary (cont’d.)
• Use cin and stream extraction operator >> to input
from the standard input device
• Use cout and stream insertion operator << to
output to the standard output device
• Preprocessor commands are processed before the
program goes through the compiler
• A file containing a C++ program usually ends with the
extension .cpp

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Input/output and Control
Structures-I
 I/O Streams and Standard I/O
Devices
• I/O: sequence of bytes (stream of bytes) from source
to destination
– Bytes are usually characters, unless program requires
other types of information
– Stream: sequence of characters from source to destination
– Input stream: sequence of characters from an input device
to the computer
– Output stream: sequence of characters from the computer
to an output device

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I/O Streams and Standard I/O Devices
(cont’d.)
• Use iostream header file to receive data from
keyboard and send output to the screen
– Contains definitions of two data types:
• istream: input stream
• ostream: output stream
– Has two variables:
• cin: stands for common input
• cout: stands for common output

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I/O Streams and Standard I/O Devices
(cont’d.)
• Variable declaration is similar to:
– istream cin;
– ostream cout;
• To use cin and cout, the preprocessor directive
#include <iostream> must be used
• Input stream variables: type istream
• Output stream variables: type ostream

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 cin and the Extraction Operator
>>
• The syntax of an input statement using cin and the
extraction operator >> is:

• The extraction operator >> is binary

– Left-side operand is an input stream variable
• Example: cin
– Right-side operand is a variable

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 cin and the Extraction Operator >>
(cont’d.)
• No difference between a single cin with multiple
variables and multiple cin statements with one
variable
• When scanning, >> skips all whitespace
– Blanks and certain nonprintable characters
• >> distinguishes between character 2 and number 2
by the right-side operand of >>
– If type char or int (or double), the 2 is treated as a
character or as a number 2

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 cin and the Extraction Operator >>
(cont’d.)

• Entering a char value into an int or double

variable causes serious errors, called input failure

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 cin and the Extraction Operator >>
(cont’d.)
• When reading data into a char variable
– >> skips leading whitespace, finds and stores only the next
character
– Reading stops after a single character
• To read data into an int or double variable
– >> skips leading whitespace, reads + or - sign (if any),
reads the digits (including decimal)
– Reading stops on whitespace non-digit character

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 cin and the Extraction Operator >>
(cont’d.)

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 cin and the Extraction Operator >>
(cont’d.)

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 cin and the Extraction Operator >>
(cont’d.)

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 Using Predefined Functions in a
Program
• Function (subprogram): set of instructions
– When activated, it accomplishes a task
• main executes when a program is run
• Other functions execute only when called
• C++ includes a wealth of functions
– Predefined functions are organized as a collection of
libraries called header files

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 Using Predefined Functions in a
Program (cont’d.)
• Header file may contain several functions
• To use a predefined function, you need the name of
the appropriate header file
– You also need to know:
• Function name
• Number of parameters required
• Type of each parameter
• What the function is going to do

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 Using Predefined Functions in a
Program (cont’d.)
• To use pow (power), include cmath
– Two numeric parameters
– Syntax: pow(x,y) = xy
• x and y are the arguments or parameters
– In pow(2,3), the parameters are 2 and 3

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 Input Failure
• Things can go wrong during execution
• If input data does not match corresponding variables,
program may run into problems
• Trying to read a letter into an int or double variable
will result in an input failure
• If an error occurs when reading data
– Input stream enters the fail state

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 Output and Formatting Output
• Syntax of cout when used with <<

• expression is evaluated
• value is printed
• manipulator is used to format the output
– Example: endl

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 setprecision Manipulator
• Syntax:

• Outputs decimal numbers with up to n decimal

places
• Must include the header file iomanip:
– #include <iomanip>

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 setw
• Outputs the value of an expression in a specified
number of columns
– cout << setw(5) << x << endl;
• If number of columns exceeds the number of
columns required by the expression
– Output of the expression is right-justified
– Unused columns to the left are filled with spaces
• Must include the header file iomanip

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 setfill Manipulator
• Output stream variables can use setfill to fill
unused columns with a character

• Example:
– cout << setfill('#');

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 Types of Manipulators
• Two types of manipulators:
– With parameters
– Without parameters
• Parameterized: require iomanip header
– setprecision, setw, and setfill
• Nonparameterized: require iostream header
– endl, fixed, showpoint, left, and flush

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Control Structures I (Selection)
 Control Structures
• A computer can proceed:
– In sequence
– Selectively (branch): making a choice
– Repetitively (iteratively): looping
– By calling a function
• Two most common control structures:
– Selection
– Repetition

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 Control Structures (cont’d.)

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 Relational Operators
• Conditional statements: only executed if certain
conditions are met
• Condition: represented by a logical (Boolean)
expression that evaluates to a logical (Boolean) value
of true or false
• Relational operators:
– Allow comparisons
– Require two operands (binary)
– Evaluate to true or false

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 Relational Operators (cont’d.)

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 Relational Operators and Simple
Data Types
• Relational operators can be used with all three
simple data types:
 8 < 15 evaluates to true
 6 != 6 evaluates to false
 2.5 > 5.8 evaluates to false
 5.9 <= 7.5 evaluates to true

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 Relational Operators and the
string Type
• Relational operators can be applied to strings
– Strings are compared character by character, starting with
the first character
– Comparison continues until either a mismatch is found or
all characters are found equal
– If two strings of different lengths are compared and the
comparison is equal to the last character of the shorter
string
• The shorter string is less than the larger string

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 Relational Operators and the
string Type (cont’d.)
• Suppose we have the following declarations:
string str1 = "Hello";
string str2 = "Hi";
string str3 = "Air";
string str4 = "Bill";
string str5 = "Big";

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 Relational Operators and the
string Type (cont’d.)

C++ Programming: From Problem Analysis to Program Design, Sixth Edition 54

 Relational Operators and the
string Type (cont’d.)

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 Relational Operators and the
string Type (cont’d.)

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 Logical (Boolean) Operators and
Logical Expressions
• Logical (Boolean) operators: enable you to combine
logical expressions

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 Logical (Boolean) Operators and
Logical Expressions (cont’d.)

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 Logical (Boolean) Operators and
Logical Expressions (cont’d.)

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 Logical (Boolean) Operators and
Logical Expressions (cont’d.)

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 Order of Precedence
• Relational and logical operators are evaluated from
left to right
– The associativity is left to right
• Parentheses can override precedence

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 Order of Precedence (cont’d.)

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 Order of Precedence (cont’d.)

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 Order of Precedence (cont’d.)

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 Order of Precedence (cont’d.)

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 The int Data Type and Logical
(Boolean) Expressions
• Earlier versions of C++ did not provide built-in data
types that had Boolean values
• Logical expressions evaluate to either 1 or 0
– Logical expression value was stored in a variable of the
data type int
• Can use the int data type to manipulate logical
(Boolean) expressions

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 The bool Data Type and Logical
(Boolean) Expressions
• The data type bool has logical (Boolean) values
true and false
• bool, true, and false are reserved words
• The identifier true has the value 1
• The identifier false has the value 0

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