College Algebra

Fifth Edition
James Stewart  Lothar Redlin  Saleem Watson
7 Matrices
and Determinants
 Inverses of Matrices
7.3 and Matrix Equations
 Introduction

In the preceding section, we saw that, when

the dimensions are appropriate, matrices
can be added, subtracted, and multiplied.

Here, we investigate division of matrices.

• With this operation, we can solve equations

that involve matrices.
The Inverse of a Matrix
Identity Matrices

First, we define identity matrices.

• These play the same role for matrix

multiplication as the number 1 does for
ordinary multiplication of numbers.

• That is,
1·a=a·1=a
for all numbers a.
 Identity Matrices

In the following definition, the term main

diagonal refers to the entries of a square
matrix whose row and column numbers
are the same.

• These entries stretch diagonally down

the matrix—from top left to bottom right.
Identity Matrix—Definition

The identity matrix In is the n x n

matrix for which:

• Each main diagonal entry is a 1.

• All other entries are 0.

 Identity Matrices

Thus, the
2 x 2, 3 x 3, and 4 x 4
identity matrices are:

1 0 0 0
1 0 0  
 1 0    0 1 0 0
I2    I   0 1 0  I 
 0 1
3 4
0 0 1 0
0 0 1  
0 0 0 1
 Identity Matrices

Identity matrices behave like the number 1

in the sense that

A · In = A and In · B = B

whenever these products are defined.

E.g. 1—Identity Matrices

The following matrix products show

how:

• Multiplying a matrix by an identity matrix

of the appropriate dimension leaves
the matrix unchanged.
E.g. 1—Identity Matrices

1 0  3 5 6  3 5 6
0 1  1 2 7    1 2 7 
    

 1 7 2
1
1 0 0   1 7 2
1

12 1 3  0 1 0   12 1 3 
    
 2 0 7  0 0 1  2 0 7 
 Inverse of a Matrix

If A and B are n x n matrices, and

if AB = BA = In, we say that B is
the inverse of A, and we write B = A–1.

• The concept of the inverse of a matrix

is analogous to that of the reciprocal
of a real number.
 Inverse of a Matrix—Definition

Let A be a square n x n matrix.

If there exists an n x n matrix A–1 with

the property that
AA–1 = A–1A = In

then we say that A–1 is the inverse of A.

E.g. 2—Verifying that a Matrix Is an Inverse

Verify that B is the inverse of A,

where:

 2 1  3 1
A  and B 
5 3   5 2 

• We perform the matrix multiplications

to show that AB = I and BA = I.
E.g. 2—Verifying that a Matrix Is an Inverse

2 1  3 1
5 3   5 2 
  
 2  3  1( 5) 2( 1)  1 2 
 
5  3  3( 5) 5( 1)  3  2 
1 0
 
 0 1
 E.g. 2—Verifying that a Matrix Is an Inverse

 3 1  2 1
 5 2  5 3 
  
 3  2  ( 1)5 3  1  ( 1)3 
 
( 5)2  2  5 ( 5)1  2  3 
1 0
 
 0 1
Finding the Inverse
of a 2 x 2 Matrix
Finding the Inverse of a 2 x 2 Matrix

The following rule provides a simple way

for finding the inverse of a 2 x 2 matrix,
when it exists.

• For larger matrices, there’s a more general

procedure for finding inverses—which we
consider later in this section.
 Inverse of a 2 x 2 Matrix

If
a b 
A 
c d 

then
1 1  d b 
A   
ad  bc  c a

• If ad – bc = 0, then A has no inverse.

 E.g. 3—Finding the Inverse of a 2 x 2 Matrix

Let A be the matrix

4 5
A 
2 3

Find A–1 and verify that

AA–1 = A–1A = I2
 E.g. 3—Finding the Inverse of a 2 x 2 Matrix

Using the rule for the inverse of a 2 x 2

matrix, we get:
1 1  3 5 
A   
4  3  5  2  2 4 
1  3 5   32  52 
    
2  2 4   1 2 
• To verify that this is indeed the inverse of A,
we calculate AA–1 and A–1A.
 E.g. 3—Finding the Inverse of a 2 x 2 Matrix

1  4 5   3
 2
5
AA    
2

 2 3   1 2 
 4  32  5( 1) 4(  52 )  5  2   1 0 
 3  
 2  2  3( 1) 2(  2 )  3  2  0 1
5

1  3
 2 
5
4 5
A A 2
  
 1 2   2 3 
 32  4  (  52 )2 32  5  (  52 )3   1 0 
    0 1
 ( 1)4  2  2 ( 1)5  2  3   
Determinant of a Matrix

The quantity ad – bc that appears in

the rule for calculating the inverse of
a 2 x 2 matrix is called the determinant
of the matrix.

• If the determinant is 0, the matrix does not

have an inverse (since we cannot divide by 0).
Finding the Inverse
of an n x n Matrix
 Finding the Inverse of an n x n Matrix

For 3 x 3 and larger square matrices,

the following technique provides
the most efficient way to calculate their
inverses.
 Finding the Inverse of an n x n Matrix

If A is an n x n matrix, we first construct the n

x 2n matrix that has the entries of A on the
left and of the identity matrix In on the right:

 a11 a12  a1n 1 0  0

a a  a2n 
 21 22 0 1  0
        
 
an1 an 2  ann 0 0  1
Finding the Inverse of an n x n Matrix

We then use the elementary row operations

on this new large matrix to change the left
side into the identity matrix.
• This means that we are changing the large matrix
to reduced row-echelon form.

 a11 a12  a1n 1 0  0

a a  a2n 
 21 22 0 1  0
        
 
an1 an 2  ann 0 0  1
Finding the Inverse of an n x n Matrix

The right side is transformed

automatically into A–1.

• We omit the proof of this fact.

 a11 a12  a1n 1 0  0

a a  a2n 
 21 22 0 1  0
        
 
an1 an 2  ann 0 0  1
 E.g. 4—Finding the Inverse of a 3 x 3 Matrix

Let A be the matrix

 1 2 4 

A   2 3 6  
 3 6 15 

(a) Find A–1.

(b) Verify that AA–1 = A–1A = I3.
E.g. 4—Inverse of a 3 x 3 Matrix Example (a)

We begin with the 3 x 6 matrix whose left half

is A and whose right half is the identity matrix.

 1 2 4 1 0 0 
 2 3 6 0 1 0 
 
 3 6 15 0 0 1

• We then transform the left half of this new matrix

into the identity matrix—by performing the following
sequence of elementary row operations on the
entire new matrix.
E.g. 4—Inverse of a 3 x 3 Matrix Example (a)

 1 2 4 1 0 0 
R2  2R1 R2
 
 0 1 
2 2 1 0 
R3  3R1 R3
0 0 3 3 0 1

 1 2 4 1 0 0 
 0 1 2 2 1 0 
1R

3 3

 
0 0 1 1 0 31 
E.g. 4—Inverse of a 3 x 3 Matrix Example (a)

 1 0 0 3 2 0 
R1  2R2 R1
 
 0 1 2 2 1 0 
 
0 0 1 1 0 31 

 1 0 0 3 2 0 
R2  2R3 R2
   0 1 0 4 1  32 
 
0 0 1 1 0 3
1

E.g. 4—Inverse of a 3 x 3 Matrix Example (a)

We have now transformed the left half

of this matrix into an identity matrix.

• This means we’ve put the entire matrix

in reduced row-echelon form.
 E.g. 4—Inverse of a 3 x 3 Matrix Example (a)

Note that, to do this in as systematic a fashion

as possible, we first changed the elements
below the main diagonal to zeros—just as we
would if we were using Gaussian elimination.

 1 2 4 1 0 0   1 2 4 1 0 0 
 2 3 6 0 1 0  0 1 2 2 1 0 
   
 3 6 15 0 0 1 0 0 3 3 0 1
E.g. 4—Inverse of a 3 x 3 Matrix Example (a)

Then, we changed each main diagonal

element to a 1 by multiplying by
the appropriate constant(s).

 1 2 4 1 0 0   1 2 4 1 0 0 
0 1 
2 2 1 0  0 1 2 2 1 0 
  
0 0 3 3 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 31 
E.g. 4—Inverse of a 3 x 3 Matrix Example (a)

Finally, we completed the process

by changing the remaining entries
on the left side to zeros.

 1 0 0 3 2 0   1 0 0 3 2 0 
0 1 2 2 1 0  0 1 0 4 1  2 
   3

0 0 1 1 0 31  0 0 1 1 0 3
1

E.g. 4—Inverse of a 3 x 3 Matrix Example (a)

The right half is now A–1.

 3 2 0 
1  2
A   4 1  3 
 1 0 1
3
E.g. 4—Inverse of a 3 x 3 Matrix Example (b)

We calculate AA–1 and A–1A, and verify that

both products give the identity matrix I3.

 1 2 4   3 2 0  1 0 0
 
AA1   2 3 6   4 1  32   0 1 0 
 3 6 15   1 0 1
3
0 0 1

 3 2 0   1 2 4   1 0 0 
 
A1A   4 1  32   2 3 6   0 1 0 
 1 0 1
3
3 6 15  0 0 1
Using Graphing Calculators

Graphing calculators are also able to

calculate matrix inverses.

• On the TI-82 and TI-83 calculators, matrices

are stored in memory using names such as
[A], [B], [C], . . . .

• To find the inverse of [A], we key in:

[A] x –1 ENTER
 Using Graphing Calculators

For the matrix of Example 4, this results

in the output shown.

• We have also used

the Frac command
to display the output
in fraction form rather
than in decimal form.
E.g. 5—Matrix that Does Not Have an Inverse

Find the inverse of the matrix.

2 3 7 
1 2 7 
 
 1 1 4 
E.g. 5—Matrix that Does Not Have an Inverse

2 3 7 1 0 0  1 2 7 0 1 0 
 1 2 7 0 1 0  R  R 2 3 7 1 0 0 
   
1 2

 1 1 4 0 0 1  1 1 4 0 0 1
E.g. 5—Matrix that Does Not Have an Inverse

1 2 7 0 0
1
R2  2R1 R2
 
 0 7 21 1 2 0  
R3 R1 R3
0 1  3 0 1 1 

1 2 7 0 1 0
 71 R2
 0 1 3  71 2
0
 7
0 1 3 0 1 1
E.g. 5—Matrix that Does Not Have an Inverse

 1 0 1 2
7
3
7
0
R3 R2 R3
   0 1 3  1
1 0 
R1  2R2 R1  7 
0 0 0  7
1
 7 1
5

• At this point, we would like to change the 0

in the (3, 3) position of this matrix to a 1,
without changing the zeros in the (3, 1) and (3, 2)
positions.
E.g. 5—Matrix that Does Not Have an Inverse

 1 0 1 2
7
3
7
0
R3 R2 R3
   0 1 3  1
1 0 
R1  2R2 R1  7 
0 0 0  7
1
 7 1
5

• However, there is no way to accomplish this.

• No matter what multiple of rows 1 and/or 2 we add

to row 3, we can’t change the third zero in row 3
without changing the first or second zero as well.
E.g. 5—Matrix that Does Not Have an Inverse

 1 0 1 2
7
3
7 0
R3 R2 R3
   0 1 3  1 2
0 
R1  2R2 R1  7 7

0 0 0  71  5
7 1

• Thus, we cannot change the left half

to the identity matrix.

• So, the original matrix doesn’t have an inverse.

 Matrix that Does Not Have an Inverse

If we encounter a row of zeros on

the left when trying to find an inverse—as
in Example 5—then the original matrix
does not have an inverse.
 Singular Matrix

If we try to calculate the inverse of the matrix

from Example 5 on a TI-83 calculator, we get
the error message shown here.

• A matrix that has

no inverse is called
singular.
Matrix Equations
Matrix Equations

We saw in Example 6 in Section 7.2

that a system of linear equations can be
written as a single matrix equation.
 Matrix Equations

For example, the system

 x  2y  4z  7

 2 x  3 y  6z  5
3 x  6 y  15z  0

is equivalent to the
matrix equation
 1 2 4   x  7 
 2 3 6   y   5 
    
 3 6 15   z  0 
 Coefficient Matrix

If we let
 1 2 4  x 7 

A   2 3 6   
X  y   
B  5  
 3 6 15   z  0 

this matrix equation can be written as:

AX = B

• The matrix A is called the coefficient matrix.

Matrix Equations

We solve this matrix equation by multiplying

each side by the inverse of A—provided
the inverse exists.
AX = B
A–1(AX) = A–1B
(A–1A)X = A–1B Associative Property
I3X = A–1B Property of Inverses
X = A–1B
Matrix Equations

In Example 4, we showed that:

 3 2 0
1  2
A   4 1  3 
 1 0 1
3
Matrix Equations

So, from X = A–1B, we have:

 x   3 2 0  7   11
 y    4 1  2  5    23 
   3   
 z   1 0 1 
3 
0  7 

• Thus, x = –11, y = –23, z = 7

is the solution of the original system.
Matrix Equations

We have proved that the matrix

equation
AX = B

can be solved by the following method.

 Solving a Matrix Equation

Let:
• A be a square n x n matrix that has an inverse A–1.
• X be a variable matrix, with n rows.
• B be a known matrix, with n rows.

Then, the solution of the matrix equation

AX = B
is given by:
X = A–1B
E.g. 6—Solving a System Using a Matrix Inverse

2 x  5 y  15

3 x  6 y  36
(a) Write the system of equations
as a matrix equation.

(b) Solve the system by solving

the matrix equation.
E.g. 6—Using a Matrix Inverse Example (a)

We write the system as a matrix

equation of the form AX = B:

2 5   x  15 
3 6   y   36 
    
 E.g. 6—Using a Matrix Inverse Example (b)

Using the rule for finding the inverse of

a 2 x 2 matrix, we get:
1
2 5 
1 1  6 ( 5)
A     
3 6  2( 6)  ( 5)3  3 2 
1  6 5 
  
3  3 2
 2 5

 3

 1
2
3 
 E.g. 6—Using a Matrix Inverse Example (b)

Multiplying each side of the matrix equation

by the inverse matrix, we get:

 x   2 5
 15  30 
 y    1     
3

 36   9 
2
   3

• Thus, x = 30 and y = 9.